Research Methods Flashcards
Process of research (6 steps)
- Aim and hypothesis
- Operationalise variables
- Choose research method
- Carry out a pilot study
- Choose sampling method
- Collect data
Practical issues ( explaination & name 3)
Things preventing you from actually carrying out the research or reaching participants
Time, money, funding body, personal skills and characteristics, subject matter and reaserch opportunity
Ethical issue (explain & name them)
Moral issues of right and wrong when dealing with participants
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Deception
Right to withdraw
Informed consent
Privacy
Theoretical issues (explain & name 4)
Whether accurate and truthful results are obtainable
Validity, reliability, representativeness, methodological perspective
Random sampling
Every member of target population gets an equal chance of being chosen (eg names in a hat)
Stratified sampling
Target population is divided into subgroups/ stratas based on characteristics and the participants are chosen randomly in proportion to subgroups
Systematic sampling
Every nth person of the sampling frame is selected
Quota sampling
The researcher identifies characteristics of target population and people who fit the criteria volunteer
Opportunity sampling
Participants who are accessible at the time and are willing to take part in
Snowball
Researcher finds small group who is representative of the target population and they ask others to participate
Random sampling advantages
Non bias as everyone has an equal chance
Random sampling disadvantages
Might not be representative as people with similar characteristics can be chosen by chance
Need to have access to list of whole target population
Stratified sampling advantages
Unbias target population have equal chance of selection
Most representative as sample is proportional to the whole of the target population
Stratified sampling disadvantages
Can be very time consuming to identify all subgroups then choose randomly from each
Can be difficult to choose a single charecteristics to divide target population into
Systematic sampling advantages
Non bias as long as nth number is chosen at random
Systematic sampling disadvantages
Might not be very representative
Can be time consuming
Quota sampling advantages
Non bias as researcher doesn’t choose participants
Easy
Quota sampling disadvantages
Not representative as the same kind of people are likely to volunteer
Opportunity sampling advantages
Quick and easy
Opportunity sampling disadvantages
Unrepresentative
Snowball sampling advantages
Useful for finding participants who may be hard to reach or unlikely to participate in reasearch
Find target population easily ounce you find the initial person
Snowball sampling disadvantages
Can be unrepresentative
Time consuming
Aim of pilot study
To fix any problems, give interviewers / observers practise, clarify and refine questions
questionnaires DISADVANTAGES
P - low response rate > unrepresentative
P - inflexibility (one questionnaires are finalised researchers can’t explore new areas of interest or ask follow up questions)
T - respondents can easily lie or forget information > validity
T - questions may impose researchers own opinions (close questions can be leading)
T - data tends to be limited, unable to obtain full picture of experiences and feelings
T - don’t capture how people’s attitudes and behaviours change
questionnaires ADVANTAGES
P - time and cost efficient
E - less ethical issues than most research methods
T - positivists favour bc researcher remains detached > unbiased and objective
T - reliability > can easily be replicated and produce similar results
Interviewer bias
When the interviewer’s own personal opinions influence the respondents answers
Focus group
An interview around a specific topic where participants are encouraged to discuss personal feeling opinions and experiences. The interviewer’s role is to give questions or topic ideas and keep participants on topic
Semi structured interviews
Interviewers have a set list of questions but are allowed to ask additional follow up questions
Mix of open and closed questions
Unstructured interviews
The interviewer had a list of prompts and topics to discuss but interviewers have freedom to vary questions and wording
Open ended questions
Structured interviews
Interviewer is given a list of pre prepared questions and strict instructions on how to ask them
Questions tend to be closed
Structured interviews ADVANTAGES
T - reliable > same questions can be used and same results will be found
T - no interviewer bias
T - valid > no interviewer bias and all interviews are conducted in the same standardised way
Structured interview DISADVANTAGES
P- time consuming > long list of questions + large sample to produce quantitive data
T - validity > can’t get detailed picture as closed Qs and no follow up questions may limit respondents
Unstructured interview ADVANTAGES
T - flexibility > can ask a range of Qs and ideas can develop throughout
T - validity > detailed picture of experiences and emotions an be discussed through open ended Qs
Unstructured interviews DISADVANTAGES
T - low reliability > cannot easily be replicated
T - difficult to compare responses from different interviewees
Focus group ADVANTAGES
P - can be more time effective
E - can be useful for vulnerable groups as people may feel more comfortable with people who share similar experiences
T - validity > gives full picture > multiple experiences
T - can spark unique discussions unlikely to happen in a one to one interview
Focus group DISADVANTAGES
T - people may conform to group opinions / distort or exaggerate personal experiences
T - difficult to maintain accurate, generalisable data due to a conflict in opinions
Overt observations
The group know they are being observed
Covert observation
The group don’t know they are being observed / researched
Participants observation
Researcher joins in with the group they are studying observing from within the group
Non participants observation
Watching the group you are studying from outside
Problems with participant observations GETTING IN
Need to share similar characteristics as group, may be seen as a threat, have to be good at acting as per of the group
Problems with participant observations STAYING IN
Gaining trust, risk of danger, taking notes + collecting data without being suspicious
Problems with participant observations GETTING OUT
Facing threats to personal safety, becoming detached to write an impartial acurate account
Going native (observations)
Becoming too involved in research group and no longer looking at research from a objective perspective decreasing validity
Examples of problematic participant observations
-John Howard griffin black like me (getting in)
- paunch 1979 ( staying in) became police officer and became native + abused powers
- Humphreys 1970 the tearoom trade ethical issues
- James Patrick 1960 Glasgow hand study (getting out)
Overt observation ADVANTAGES
P- are able to take notes / record data without causing suspicion
E - can gain informed consent > ethical
T- replicability > reliability
Overt observation DISADVANTAGES
P - time consuming often years
T - Hawthorne / observer effect > participants change behaviour as they know they are being observed
T - gaining entry may be difficult as group may not want to be observed (esp. deviant groups)
Covert observations ADVANTAGES
P - may be the only way to observe certain groups / behaviours (eg deviant groups who are in unlikely to participate in research)
T - no Hawthorne effect > valid - participants can’t change behaviour as they don’t know they are being observed
Covert observations DISADVANTAGES
P - may be difficult to take notes and ask questions without seeming suspicious
Researcher characteristic could make it difficult to get into the group and gain trust
E - deception and unable to get informed consent
T - observer may find it difficult detaching from the group and providing a non bias report > decrease validity
Non participant observation ADVANTAGES
P - easier access as you do not need to untergrabe as part of the group
T - more reliable as it is objective as personal feelings, opinions and experiences of the researcher are not involved
Non participant observation DISADVANTAGES
P - can’t observe hard to reach groups such as deviant groups
T - validity - can’t get as acurate oof a picture and as detailed information from outside the group
- observer effect
Aim of an experiment
Measure the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable
Independent vs dependent variable
Independent = changed / manipulated
Dependent = measured
Lab experiment
(Environment, control over IV + example)
- controlled, artificial environment
- high control over independent variable , extraneous variables minimised
- eg milgrams shock experiment
Field experiments
(Environment, control over IV + example)
- real life setting
- some control over IV but possible extraneous variables
- eg Rosenthal and Jacobson’s pygmalion in the classroom
Natural experiment
(Environment, control over IV + example)
- natural real life environment
- IV cannot be manipulated as it is naturally occurring and often unethical to manipulate it
- eg. Durkheims study of suicide
Primary data
Data collected by the researcher for the purpose of the study
Secondary data
Data collected by someone else for a different purpose
Official statistics
Quantitative data collated by the government or other official boards
Collected through registration or official surveys
Dark figure of crime
Claimed that are not represented in official statistics because the you unreported, unrecorded or unnoticed
Hard statistics
Factual statistics as there is a legal obligation the report them eg. Birth rate
Soft statistics
Open to interpretation as they only represent as present age of the social issue they are looking at
Documents
Write texts including sounds and images
Official statistics STRENGTHS
P - easily acceded large amounts of data for free > secondary data
Shows patterns over time
E - avoids all ethical issues
T - favoured by positivist > quantitative
Reliable > same data available to everyone
Large sample > representative of national population > generalisable, valid
Official statistics WEAKNESSES
T - validity > dark figure of crime and soft statistics not representative of the truth
Doesn’t provide qualitative data > interpretivists
Field experiment STRENGTHS
T - generalisability > research is conducted in a real life environment
Ecological validity > results can be applied to real life situations
Avoids Hawthorne effect > participants are unaware they are part of an experiment
Field experiment WEAKNESSES
E - informed consent is often not given to avoid Hawthorne effect
T - extraneous and confounding variables are difficult to control > difficult to establish cause and effect
Lab experiment WEAKNESSES
E - often deception occurs to avoid Hawthorne effect / incomplete consent forms
T - Hawthorne effect > if participants know they are being studied they may change their behaviour in favour or against the experiment
Lacks ecological validity > artificial environment
Lab experiment STRENGTHS
T - reliability > easily replicated
Controlled environment > easily established cause + effect
Natural experiment STRENGTHS
P - allows sociologists to study the past
Only way some groups can be studied as the IV is naturally occurring
Natural experiment WEAKNESSES
P - sometimes participants can be hard to reach
Documents ADVANTAGES
P - allows us to study past events
Saves time and money > secondary data
T - validity > authentic statement of the authors views / experiences
Documents DISADVANTAGES
T - reliability > unstandardised as open to interpretation
Not generalisable > lacks populations validity > only a single groups / persons experience
