Research Methods Flashcards
What is operationalising?
Clearly defining variable that your manipulating and measuring
What’s extraneous variable
Variables other than IV that COULD affect dv
What’s standardisation
To control for extraneous variables, psychologists keep everything the same other than the IV
What’s confounding variable
DOES affect what your measuring
What’s a null hypothesis
Predicts NO difference
What’s a experimental hypothesis
Predicts there WILL be a difference
Directional hypothesis
Predicts the direction results will go in. So increase or decrease
What’s a non directional hypothesis
Predicts no direction for results
What’s informed consent?
Participants should know what they’re getting into before doing it.
Informed consent
Researchers must attempt to get real consent from participant. This is only possible when they understand what they’re agreeing to,consent for children must be obtained from parents
Deception in psychological research
Should be avoided whenever possible. Ps should be informed of purpose of study as soon as possible. Not acceptable if deception cause distress- debriefing
Right to withdrawal in psychological research
Ps should be told they have right to withdraw from a study at any point and also their data.
Protection from harm psychological research
Ps should be protected from physical and psychological harm. They should not be exposed to any risk that they wouldn’t encounter in everyday life
Psychological research privacy
If ps observed in place that isn’t public cam be classed lac of privacy
What’s debriefing
Used after study to deal with any deception or psychological harm. Fully inform nature and aim of study, offer counselling
What are experimental designs
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to used in these conditions.
Types is matched pairs, independent groups and repeated measures
Repeated measures designs strengths
Fewer participants needed
No individual difference, Ps variables are controlled as the same participants are used in each condition . This makes the research higher in validity
Repeated measures limitations
Order effects - Ps may do better on the second test because of a practice effect, or Ps may do worse on the 2nd test because of being bored with doing the same test again
Demand characteristics. Participants may guess the true aims of the study if they take part in both conditions, lowering the internal validity of the study
Independent group design strengths
No order effects influencing the results because a different group of participants are taking part in each condition.
Demand characteristics . They only take part in one condition do less likely to guess aim of study
Independent group designs limitations
Amount of participants - researchers meed to recruit more as seperate groups needed for each condition
Individual differences. Ps who occupy different groups are not the same in terms of p variables. These can act as confounding variables reducing the validity of the findings
Matched pairs design strengths
More balanced groups ps are pre matched on important traits so participant variables are reduced
Demand characteristics. Participants only take part in 1 condition so they’re far less likely to guess the aim of the research and change their behaviour
Matched pairs design limitations
Amount of Ps- researchers need to recruit more ps as a seperate group is needed for each condition.
Time consuming and difficult to achieve. Participants may never be matched exactly
when should a hypothesis be non directonal?
when previous research is contradictory [or none?}
why might open questions in a questionnaire be better?
open questions might give the researcher detailed insight into reasons for behaviour
open questions could lead to ideas for further investigation
What’s a questionnaire
Self report technique which allows ps to directly provide info about themselves
Strength and weakness of questionnaire
Strength
Can be easily distributed to ps. Researchers can obtain large sample of ps and generate a lot of data. Very economic
Standardised questions. Easy to replicate, and researcher can check for reliability.
Limitations
Social desirability bias can reduce validity
Misinterpretation. Ps may not understand the Q and guess what the q means
Whats social desirability bias
Respondents give answers to questions they believe will make them look good to others, concealing their true opinions
How could we reduce social desirability
Make it anonymous questionnaire
Closed questions positive and negative
They produce quantitative data which are easier to analyse
Respondents may be forced to select annswrs that doesn’t represent their real, thought
Open questions positive and negative
Can provide unexpected answers and rich detail,allowing researchers to gain new insights
Difficult to analyse bc they produce qualilt8tive data
What are interviews
Verbal, face to face
Structured interview - rewritten is which they don’t deviate from. All ps asked same qs
Unstructured interview- interview may have few general questions in mind but there are no set qs
Semi Structured interview- mix between 2. It has pre determined qs. Respondent free to expand on their response. Follow up qs
Strengths and limitations of interview
Structured strengths
Quick to conduct. Large sample can be obtained resulting In the findings being more representative
Straight forward and easy to replicate as Standardised qs
Structured weakness
Lack flexibility as new qs can’t be asked during interview
Unstructured strengths
Provide greater flexibility as they allow interviewers to ask follow up qs
Qualitative data bc interviewee can talk in depth about situation
Unstructured weakness
Require lots of skill and specialised training. Can be expensive
Describe correlations
Measures relationships between co variables
Can’t establish causation
Eg that one variable caused a change in the other variable
Describe experimentsv
Manipulates the iv in order to measure the effect on the dv
Can establish cause and effect
That the iv caused change on DV
How’s a correlation coefficient measured and what does it measure
Measured from +1 to -1
The correlation coefficient measures the strength of the relationship between 2 variables
Strengths and negatives of correlations
Positive- Quantitive data as numbers. And Allows relationship between 2 existing variables to be examined when a controlled experiment may not be possible due to ethical or practical reasons. Good starting point for further research
Negative
The third variable
Not possible to establish cause and effect between 2 co variables as researcher has no control over variables being measured. . Correlations can be missed
What are observations and types of them
Non experimental research method (no iv or dv in experiment)
Naturalistic, controlled overt covert participant non participant
Describe naturalistic and controlled types of observations
Naturalistic- takes place In natural setting in which behaviour would usually occur. Interference from researcher kept to minimum. Strength- ecological validity high. Allows us to study behaviour that would be Unethical to manipulate. Limitations- can’t control for extraneous variables, low reliability hard to replicate
Controlled - researcher attempts to control or manipulate variables in some way and observes participants behaviour. Strength extraneous variables eliminated so high validy stansardised procedures so easy to replicate/reliable Limitations- demand characteristics as ps know they’re being observed. Low ecological validity
Describe overt and covert observations
Overt - ps aware they’re being observed, observer clearly visible , consent
strength- consent so fewer ethical issues. Researcher can find more info from ps after study so can find reasons for their actions. Limit- observer/investigator effects (unnatural behaviour) lead to demand characteristics. Internal validity decreased
Covert - ps unaware they’re being observed.observer not visible. Done secretly.
Strength- increase internal validity, no demand characteristics . natural behaviour. Allows researcher to explore behaviours which are private or secretive such as criminal behaviour. Limit- ethical issues, no consent. Might be hard to record behaviour without revealing that you’re observing them
Describe participant and non participant observations
Participant observation- observer gets involved and participates in behaviour of the group being observed. Can be done overtly or covertly. Strength- researcher becomes fully immersed in the groups behaviour, so better understanding of the actions of the group being observed. Limit - difficult for observer to take step back and be objective about their observations. Very difficult to record behaviour if done covertly without being discovered
Non participant observation- researcher follows the group around during the activities but doesn’t engage in any, strength - researcher not interfering with behaviour being observed. Able to remain objective and be an observer
Limit - observer might not fully understand the actions of the group, if done overtly presence of observer can change behavior of group
What’s a double blind trial
Research assistant used who doesn’t know full aim of research. Can’t give no cues to ps and record observations in less bias way
What’s an aim
General statement about intended purpose of study. What researcher wants to find out, contains variables being investigated
Aim vs hypothesis
Hypothesis is a prediction about what will happen in study. Testable statement of the affect of one variable on another or relationship, whilst aim is a general statement about the intended purpose of the study,
Describe opportunity sampling
Involves asking whoever is normally easily available and willing to take part at the time of the study,
Adv- convenient in terms of time and cost, easy to obtain large samples most common.
Disadv- sample is likely to be biased bc researches influences who is asked to take part, may be biased when selecting ps.
Unrepresentative, lack population va,idity can’t generalise
Self selecting sampling (volunteers
Involved advertising for volunteers. Individuals who decide they wish to be involved in the study approach the researcher and may become volunteers ps
Adv - ps more likely to be motivated to take part in the research bc they volunteered. More serous
Disadv- self selected, may differ in important aspects from those who didn’t volunteer.
Systematic sampling
Involves selecting the nth person on a list. Choose n by dividing the population size by the sample size
Adv- researchers selection is not biased by preconceptions of the ps abilities or behaviour
Diasv - even though p selected, p nay refuse to take part, therefore researcher may end with small sample or cost time and money to select more ps
Researcher may end with sample dominated by male or female
Random sampling
Every member of the target pop has an equal chance of being selected, they can be selected by putting names of the whole target pop in a hat or computer programme
Adv- avoids the possibility of researchers selecting a sample that supports their hypothesis. Less likely to be biased and have greater population validity
Diadv - even if ps are selected they may not be able or refuse to take part in study. Small sample, cost money time for more
Male dominated or female maybe
Whats Stratified sampling
Allows researchers to make sure that certain aspects of the target population that are relevant to their research are reflected in the sample. Uses and random
Adv - could ensure that various groups are represented in terms Of their proportionality in the population. This would improve the generalisability of the results.
Disadv ‘ complex and time consuming to achieve. Researcher had to decide on which categories of target pop to include in sample and calc percentage
Ways of recording behaviour
Event sampling- record behaviour every time it occurs
Adv - useful, when larger behaviours infrequent
Diasdv - observer may miss little on important behaviour if other occurs and is too complex
Time sampling - recording behaviour at pre established time periods.
Adv- less observations need to be made.
Disadv - may not be representative of true behaviour if only recorded at intervals
Whats meant by self report technique
Participant gives information to the researcher (provides details about own behaviour)
Involves responding to questions on a questionnaire, where there may be open or closed questions
Describe how psychologist could have obtained the 60(out of 40 female ps100) male ps for stratified sample
we need 20 only
Put all 60 names in a hat
Determine the proportion of males needed to mirror the number of males in the target population as follows. 60
So calc 60% of 20, = 12 so draw out 12 names
psychologist wanted to randomly allocate the 20 people in her stratified sample
to the two conditions. She needed an equal number of males in each condition and (60 males)
an equal number of females in each condition. Explain how she would have done
this.
Give each man a number from 1-12
Put 12 numbers in hat
Assign first six numbers drawn to condition A with the remainder for condition B
Repeat the process for women. 8 numbers in the hat and draw out 4 for condition a and remaining 4 go to B
What’s inter observer reliability
Consistency of measurements between different observers recording the same event or behaviour
Whats a pilot study?
SMALL-SCALE version of the experiment / questionnaire / observation and will usually involve a small number of participants.
•This is done to BEFORE the main study, to test the procedure, identify any potential pitfalls and make amendments.
•It is NOT done to provide evidence for the hypothesis - so hypothesis not tested
whats a case study
An in-depth and detailed investigation of an individual or a specific group. This may take place over a long period of time and often applied to real life phenomenon
Features of Case studies
Focus on one individual or small group
Collects detailed qualitative data, using a variety of methods such as naturalistic observations and unstructured interviews
Usually longitudinal in design studying an individual over a significant period in a real life setting
case studies strength and weaknesses
Strength:Offers rich, detailed insights on unusual and atypical behaviour. - Not superficial like questionnaires or experiments.
•Contribute to our understanding of normal functioning (natural behaviour). High ecological validity.
•Generates hypothesis for future study
•Takes advantage of nonreplicable studies
Weakness - Hard to generalise - very small sample sizes.
•Subjective selection and interpretation of the research by the researcher (bias)
•Personal accounts of family and friends may be inaccurate (memory decays)
•Ethical considerations – researcher’s integrity
•May be costly and time consuming – hard to rationalise cost in request
what are ethics in psychology
potential for ps to be harmed in some way during research
whats primary data
research thats collected first hand by a researcher and is specfic to the aim of the study to test their hypothesis
researcher will know how the data was collected and for what
whats secondary data
data not collected my researcher but used by them in the research
whats primary data strength and limitations
strength- researcher can ensure that the research they’re conducting is directly and specifically focused on the issues at hand. procedure designed to suit aim of the research
limitation- primary data costs more time and money to gather than using secondary data sources
whats secondary data strengths and limitations
takes less time and money for researcher as they can gather a lof of data in short space of time compared to primary data
limitations- researcher cant be sure that secondary sources have been achieved through sound research method techniques. may be biased
Previously collected by a third p and then used by the researcher
advantage and dis of qualitative and quantitative data
qualitative- adv- detailed rich data gives researcher good understanding of behaviour being studied
disadv- difficult to analyse
quantitative adv- easy to analyse
disadv- lacking depth and meaning no info about behavour being studied
what are behavioural categories adv and disadv
table with different behavioural categories to record data
Adv- tallies make data easier to quantify and use in graphs compared to qualitative data. behavioural schedules are classed as a more scientific and objective way of carrying out observations compared to other methods of of observation. standardised so reliable
Disadv- lack of inter observer reliability as one observers definition of certain behaviour may be different from anothers. observers require lengthy training in order to use them reliably so its a cost
Whats counter balancing
ABBA
when half ps do condition a then b and other half do b then a
whats random allocation
way of dealing with design issues
each member of sample should have equal chance of going in each condition. name of ps go in hat and researcher draws them out first name goes cond a then second B
whats Meta-Analysis
A meta-analysis is where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion.
whatre Investigator effects
occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting
Types of experiments
Lab,field, natural quasi
Feature of lab experiments strengths and limitations
Artificial as its a highly controlled environment
The reasercher manipulates the iv and records the effects on the dv whilst having control over extraneous and confounding variables
High internal validity as we can establish a cause and effect relationship but low ecological validity
Describe field experiments strengths and limitations
Takes place in a natural everyday setting. reasercher manipulates iv to record the effects of DV.
High ecological validity but not possible to control and eliminate extraneous variable
What’s a natural experiment strengths and limitations
Iv not manipulated by researchers. Researchers take advantage of pre existing iv. Can take place in lab or natural environment
High ecological validity and allows research that might be unethical
Extraneous variables .
What’s a quasi experiment
Iv is an existing difference between people eg age gender
Can take place in lab or field
Describe Qualitative data
Open questions
Thematic analysis
Opinions
Unstructured interviews
Sentences
Descriptions
Describe quantitave data
Closed questions
Content analysis
%
Mean, median mode
Numbers
Correlation coefficients
Meta analysis
A meta-analysis is a research method that uses secondary data. This is where data from lots of studies already carried out is combined to provide an overall view on a subject.
Meta analysis evaluation
Allows us to create a larger more varied sample and results can then be generalised across much larger populations, increasing validity
May be prone to publication bias. Researcher may not select all relevant studies or choose to leave out those with negative or non significant results
whats Content analysis
studies people indirectly through forms of conversions and human behaviour to systematically draw conclusions.
form of converting qualitative data to quantitative
what are coding units
occurences of particular words
whats thematic analysis
way of summarising qualitative data. Researcher looks for themes and uses quotations from the evidence to support their research
whats the stages of conducting a content analysis
1) Gather data
2) Familiarise yourself with data
3) Identify categories
4) Tally the times a behaviour occurs
5) count the total
6) Estimate/ evaluate using interrated reliability
whats interrated reliability
a measure of consistency and agreement between individuals scoring or evaluating the same terms or behaviours
content analysis strengths and limitations
+ can be easily replicated. High ecological validity.
- cause and effect relationship cant be made using content analysis
- may be subject to researcher bias. lowers objectivity of method
what’re the potential problems of turning qualitative fata into quantitative data
reduces validity as you might make assumptions/ its open to interpretations. Lacks detail and meaning
how do you conduct thematic analysis
1) Analysis of qualitative data and transcribing it
2) Familiarise yourself with data
3) Code the data and put it into categories
4) Look for reoccurring themed and patterns which run through and link the data
5) Provides example to illustrate the themes. Write a report
strengths and limitations of thematic analysis
its qualitative data so its rich in detail.
Has high external validity as they were designed for real life
can get around many of the ethical issues
- info often studied outside of context
- can lack objectivity as resources could be chosen which can reflect the researchers aims
which is not possible in a quasi experiment
Random allocation
What do s.d values suggest
S.d higher so more inconsistency
Explain how counterbalancing might improve the design of the study
Addresses the problem of order affects by having half the ps do the condition in a different order any order affects both conditions equally
