Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
A01 - ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY Wilhelm Wundt
the Father of Psychology
Wundt, who trained in medicine and philosophy, was the first scientist to set up a psychological laboratory, established in 1879 in Germany. Wundt stated that he wanted to take psychology out of philosophy and establish it as a science in its own right.
AO1 Outline wundts method of introspection and his contributions
One of Wundt’s most commonly used research methods was that of introspection. Introspection means
“looking into and this method was used to understand the mind, specifically sensations and feelings.
• Trained observers were presented with controlled stimuli such as ticking metronome.
• Participants were then asked to describe how the stimuli made them think and feel.
• The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person.
Once trained to introspect, researchers took as long as twenty minutes to report on their inner experiences from a one-second experiment!
Summary of Wundts’s Contributions:
1. Wrote the first textbook of psychology
2. Set up first laboratory of experimental psychology
3. Used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
4. Pioneered the use of introspection as a method to study mental states
AO3 Wundts contribution
Research was not Scientific
Although Wundt was attempting to be scientific, other psychologists such as the behaviourists have criticised Wundt’s approach. The behaviourists said that ‘private’ experiences such as sensations and thoughts that were self- reported during introspection are not observable and are therefore difficult to measure. The experiences that Wundt’s participants were reporting were subjective. The behaviourists believe the only way to be more objective and scientific is by attempting to measure observable behaviour. This is a weakness because such criticism undermines the objectivity of Wundt’s work.
However
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Although Introspection may not seem particularly scientific, it is still used today to gain access to cognitive processes. For example, Griffiths (1994) used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to ‘think aloud’ whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel. He found that regular gamblers made more irrational
verbalisations than non regular gamblers. Therefore, introspection can have practical applications in understanding behaviour in modern society
Contribution to other Psychological Approaches
One strength of Wundt’s methods are that they have often been credited as the start of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a modern-day psychological approach which attempts to measure what is a happening in the mind using scientific methods. Without Wundt some have questioned if cognitive psychology would exist today. This is a strength because Wundt’s methods have been incredibly influential to cognitive
psychologists and therefore the discipline of Psychology as a whole.
Contribution to Psychology as a Science
As Wundt applied the scientific method to studying the mind it means that in modern times psychology is considered a scientific discipline by many academics.
If Wundt had never set up the first psychology lab it is possible that the study of the mind might still be tied to its philosophical roots and psychology might never have gained the status that it has
today. This is a strength because Wundt’s influential work has paved the way for the study of psychology, as a respected discipline.
A01: THE LEARNING APPROACH: whats Behaviourism.
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning, without the need to consider thoughts and feelings.
Behaviour is Learned through the Environment
Behaviourists believe that humans are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and that all our behaviours are learnt from the environment e.g., upbringing, culture and society, etc. This means that behaviourists are strongly on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, and
regard genetic influences on behaviour as minimal.
whats classical, operant conditioning, reinforcement and punishment?
Classical conditioning - Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by unlearned stimulus alone.
Operant conditioning - A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
Reinforcement - A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative.
Punishment - The application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
Methods used by the behaviourist approach
Behaviourist psychologists use the scientific method, and study only things that could be directly observed and
measured eg behaviour and the environmental conditions that produce it.
In their controlled laboratory experiments, behaviourist often use animals. A lab experiment can be defined as an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to see the effect on the dependant variable, whilst maintaining strict control of the extraneous variables.
Behaviourists accept Darwin’s theory of evolution - which states human beings have evolved from lower
animals. As a result, behaviourists see the basic processes of learning as being the same for all species.
Consequently, animals can replace humans as experimental subjects/participants. Behaviourists have studied
rats, cats, pigeons and dogs to investigate how learning occurs.
AO1: The Key Assumptions of Behaviourism
Behaviour is Learned through Association
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, who was studying the digestion systems of
dogs by collecting their saliva, developed classical conditioning. Pavlov noticed
that the dogs began to salivate before food was brought to them. He hypothesised that the dogs had learned to anticipate food and this triggered
their salivation. Pavlov conducted an experiment to test this idea.
1. Before Conditioning
food is unconditioned stimulus-> salvation unconditioned response
2. Before Conditioning
bell neutral stimulus-> no salvation no conditioned response
3. During Conditioning
bell+food—> unconditioned response
4. After Conditioning
bell conditioned stimulus–> salvation conditioned response
Classical Conditioning Pavlov
Step 1: Pavlov presented the dog with food. This triggered salivation in the dog. Pavlov called food an unconditioned stimulus which produced an unconditioned response eg the dog’s salivation is a reflex that has not been learned, and is a natural bodily reaction.
Step 2: Pavlov rang a bell, but the dog did not respond. Pavlov called the bell a neutral stimulus as it did not lead to salivation.
Step 3: Every time food was presented to the dog, the bell was rung at the same time to create an association between the bell and food. This learning stage was repeated every time the dog was fed.
Step 4: Eventually the dog learnt to salivate to the sound of the bell alone. This is a conditioned response as it is the result of learning to associate one stimuli (a bell) with another (food). The bell is no longer neutral but a conditioned stimulus because the dog now salivates to the sound of the bell.
Pavlov also discovered several other points about the process:
Timing - Pavlov found that the association only occurs if the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time, or around the same time as each other. If the time between presentations is too great then there will be no association made.
Stimulus generalisation - Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they would also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Extinction: I the example of Pavlov’s dogs (see later pg) if the bell (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly sounded without the food, salivation (conditioned response) slowly disappears. The behaviour is extinguished.
Little Albert Experiment
Watson and Rayner
Aim: Watson and Rayner conducted a study to demonstrate that phobias can be learnt through classical
conditioning.
Procedure: A 9-month old boy called Little Albert was presented with a white rat. His reaction to the rat was noted. Next, Albert was again presented with the rat, however, this time a very loud noise was made by striking a steel bar with a hammer. This was repeated a number of times. Eventually the white rat was
put in front of Little Albert, but in the absence of the loud noise
Findings: Initially, Little Albert was unafraid of the rat, however, after it was paired with the loud noise, Little Albert developed a fear response. Even when the loud noise stopped, little Albert remained frightened of the rat.
Conclusion: Fear can be conditioned in a young child. 5 days later Watson and Rayner found that Little Albert had generalised his fear to any small white object, such as a small rabbit and a white dog.
whats Operant Conditioning
Not all behaviours are classically conditioned responses. Other Behaviourists, such as B.F Skinner
recognised that most learning occurs through the consequences of behaviour.
skinners research
Skinner developed the Skinner box in order to test the effects of rewards on behaviour. A hungry rat was placed in the box. The box contained a lever and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately, a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. After a few trials, the rats quickly learned to press the lever
to gain the food reward. The consequence of receiving food
ensured that the rat would repeat the action again and again.
Skinner (1938) identified three types of consequences that can follow behaviour:
1. Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. For example, the lever pressing behaviour of the rats in the Skinner box was positively reinforced with food pellets. In attachment, the mother rewards the babies crying with food.
2. Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant. For example, in the topic of attachment, the mother feeds the baby milk to avoid it crying.
3. Punishment Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an unpleasant consequence that decreases the behaviour that it follows. Skinner
investigated the effects of punishment by introducing an electrified grid floor to the Skinner box so that pressing the lever resulted in a brief electric shock. Unsurprisingly, the rats quickly learnt not to press the
lever.
A03: Overall Evaluation of the Behaviourist Approach
(D.R.E.A.M)
Deterministic
The Behaviourist approach can be accused of being deterministic in its view of human behaviour.The Behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as being controlled by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total
of our reinforcement history. Skinner said that any sense of free will is simply ‘an illusion’ and our past conditioning history controls our behaviour. This is a weakness as the approach is suggesting that people are not responsible for their behaviour. If our past experiences control our behaviour, then it means we cannot choose how to behave. If someone behaves in an immoral way, the approach seems to suggest it is not their fault.
Reductionist
The behaviourist approach is accused of being reductionist on its view of human
behaviour.The Behaviourist approach reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause i.e. the role of the environment and the principles of operant and classical conditioning.This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through positive or negative reinforcement. The approach ignores other contributions such as the role of cognitive processes of neurochemistry. Perhaps it should take an eclectic approach.
Evidence
There are many pieces of supporting evidence for the behaviourist approach.Much of the supporting research is from scientific lab studies. For example, Pavlov’s dog supports the classical conditioning theory and the Skinner box research supports the operant conditioning theory (these will be taught in the next section). This is a strength because having supporting research adds validity and credibility to the Behaviourist approach. Evidence is needed to support a theory/approach
Application (Can the approach be used to help people in the real world?)
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world
behaviours and problems. For instance, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions. For example, token economies are used in prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges.
Additionally Classical conditioning has led to the development of treatments for the reduction of
anxiety associated with phobias. Systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical
conditioning and works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) associated with the feared object or situation (CS) and replacing it with relaxation. This is a strength because of token economies is that they have been very successful in treating and correcting prisoners’ behaviour. Additionally systematic desensitisation has a very high success rate of treating phobic patients. This shows that conditioning can be used in real-life.
Methods
Much of the supporting research comes from highly controlled scientific animal lab
experiments.Skinner (operant conditioning) and Pavlov (classical conditioning) used scientific lab experiments as it allowed them to eliminate any extraneous variables to establish a cause and effect relationship between reinforcement (IV) and the learning of a behaviour (DV). is is a strength because by using the scientific method, behaviourism has been very influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving psychology greater credibility and status.
AO1: Assumptions of the Social Learning Theory
believe in using scientific, lab-based experiments to study behaviour in an objective way
SLT believes that learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly (vicarious conditioning
AO1: Social Learning Theory (SLT) - Bandura
The SLT says people (especially children) learn by observing what other people say and do. They are more likely to observe and imitate some people rather than everyone, these people are called role models.
For social learning to take place, someone must first carry out the behaviour or attitude to be learned (this is called modelling). The individual that performs this role is referred to as a model. There are many different types of models: a live model might be a parent or a teacher or a member of a peer group. A symbolic model would be somebody portrayed in the media e.g., an actress. These models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and later reproduced by imitating them.
Identification refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and wants to be like them. It is more likely to happen if the individual feels that s/he are similar e.g. same sex. In order to identify with a model, the observer must feel that s/he would be likely to experience the same
outcomes in that situation. If an individual can identify with a model this means they are more
likely to imitate their behaviour.
Friendly
Likeable
Age
Gender
Statua
Vicarious Reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement refers to reinforcement that is not directly experienced but that occurs
through observing someone else being reinforced.
An individual who observes a model being rewarded for a certain behaviour is more likely to imitate that behaviour as they want the same reward. This is the idea that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn. Instead, they can observe the consequences experienced by a model and then make judgments as to the likelihood of experiencing these outcomes themselves. When the opportunity to perform the learnt behaviour occurs the behaviour will be modelled. Similarly, if the individual observes a behaviour being punished it makes it less likely that the behaviour will be imitated.
The Four Mediational Processes (ARRM)
We do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it. There are certain thought processes (mediational I processes) that take place prior to imitation.
Learning the behaviour:
ATTENTION
the observer must be paying attention and observing the model e.g. they must notice and pay attention to the behaviour being modelled
RETENTION
the observer must remember the behaviour they have seen. Behaviour may be noticed, but it is not always remembered.
Performing the behaviour
REPRODUCTION
the observer must be capable of reproducing the behaviour they have seen e.g., they must be physically capable of imitating the behaviour. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old woman
watching Dancing on lce. She may really enjoy seeing the moves shown, but she will not attempt to imitate them because she physically cannot do it.
MOTIVATION-
the rewards and punishments that follow behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the possible rewards are greater than the costs, then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer.
Bobo doll experiment
PROCEDURE: Children aged 2-6 years watched a film of an adult punching and shouting aggressively at a Bobo doll. The children were divided into 3 groups with each group viewing a different ending:
Group 1 the adult was rewarded with sweets for their aggressive behaviour
Group 2 the adult was punished (told off) for their aggressive behaviour
Group 3 acted as the control group and did not see an ending to the film
The children were then placed in a room with various toys, including a bobo doll and were observed.
FINDINGS: Bandura found the children’s play was influenced by whichever ending they had seen:
Group 1 showed a high level of aggression in their play
Group 2 showed a low level of aggression
Group 3 showed medium levels of aggression
CONCLUSION: This study supports the idea of vicarious learning, e.g. the children learnt from watching the consequences of the adult’s aggressive behaviour
