Research methods Flashcards
Define experiments
An investigation that looks for a causal relationship where the IV is manipulated and responsible for the changes in the DV
Define IV
IV is manipulated under 2 or more conditions and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV
Define DV
DV is what is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV
Define experimental design
Participants are allocated to different levels of IV
Define independent measures design
Where different groups of participants are used for each level of the IV
2 Strengths & weaknesses of independent measures design
S - Different pps are used in each level of the IV, so no order effects
S - Reduces demand characteristics as pps get experiment once
W - Individual differences distort results in different levels of IV
W - Less effective when sample size is small as pps are hard to find
Define repeated measures design
Same group of participants are used for every level of the IV
Strengths & weaknesses of repeated measures design
S - Participant variables unlikely to distort results as all pps go thru each lvl of IV
S - Counterbalancing reduces order effects
W - Order effects can occur bc pps get bored/tired going through same exp task
W - Higher demand characteristics as pps are exposed to same exp task more than once
Define matched pairs design
An experimental design where participants are matched in pairs, and they are similar to each other. One member performs at a different level of IV
Strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs design
S - Reduced demand characteristics as pps see only one lvl of IV
S - No order effects as different pps are used for each lvl of IV
W - Similarity of pairs is limited making it hard to finding matching pps
W - Less gen as sample size may be small when matching pairs are limited
Define laboratory experiment
- IV, DV, strict controls
- Looks for a causal relationship
- Conducted in an unnaturalistic setting with participants in regard to their behavior performed
2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of lab exp
S - High validity (more control of variables)
S - High reliability/replicability (standardized procedure)
W - Low eco validity
W - pps can respond to demand characteristics and change behavior
Define field experiment
- Looks for a causal relationship
- IV is manipulated and expected to be responsible for changes in DV
- Conducted in natural environment
2 strengths and weaknesses of field exp
S - High eco validity
S - Reduced demand characteristics if pps are unaware about the study
W - Extraneous variables which can affect results of the study
W - Raise ethical concerns if pps don’t know they are a part of a study
Define hypothesis
A testable statement based on the aims of the investigation
Define alternative hypothesis
A testable statement predicting a difference in the DV based on the levels of the IV in an experiment
Define two-tailed (non-directional) hypothesis
- Only predicts the effect
- Doesn’t predict the direction of the effect
E.g:
Define one-tailed (directional) hypothesis
Predicts the direction of the effect
E.g:
Define null hypothesis
A testable statement saying that any difference is due to chance and not because of variables being studied
Define self-report
A research method that gathers data by asking participants to provide information about themselves
E.g. interviews or questionnaires
Define questionnaire
A research method that uses written questions through pen and paper or online techniques to gather participants’ information
Define closed-ended questions
Participants only have a few stated options to choose from and they don’t have any opportunity to expand their responses
Define open-ended questions
Participants give their detailed answers in their own words without any other choices given
Define inter-rater reliability
This is when two researchers who produce qualitative data from interviews or questionnaires will score records consistently from the same raw data
Strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires
+ closed-ended questions provide quali data (easy to compare/analyze)
+ easy to work with averages/identify patterns
+ open-ended questions provide more detailed & in-depth responses
- open-ended questions may lack inter-rater reliability (two researchers may interpret things differently)
- lack of reliability (researchers may be inconsistent with their interpretations)
- social desirability (pps can change responses or lie in questionnaires)
Define interviews
A research method that uses verbal questions asked directly like face-to-face or verbal communication
Define structured interviews
An interview format where the questions are kept the same for every participant and the order is fixed
–> (consistency like researcher’s posture or tone of voice may be used to ensure that the procedure is further standardized)
Define unstructured interviews
An interview format where the questions that are asked depends on what the participant says, so questions for every participant may be different
Define semi-structured interviews
An interview format that uses a fixed list of open-ended and closed-ended questions and the interviewer can add more questions if necessary
Strengths and weaknesses of interviews
+ open-ended questions produce more quali data (detailed, in-depth information)
+ comparisons and averages can be calculated in semi-structured interviews if necessary
- social desirability bias (pps may lie)
- interviews are time-consuming (takes long time to conduct and gather data)
- researchers need to be careful not to be subjective and instead be objective
Define subjectivity
This is an individual’s personal viewpoint which may be biased by their own opinions, beliefs, or feelings and interpretations can differ between researchers
Define objectivity
This is an unbiased viewpoint which is not biased by a person’s opinions, beliefs, or feelings so interpretations should be kept consistent between different researchers
Define case study
A research method where a single individual is studied in detail
Define triangulation
When different research methods are used to study the same phenomenon
Strengths and weaknesses of case studies
+ in-depth information can be gathered from just one individual
+ high validity from triangulation (wide variety of info can be gathered from participant and family members)
- low validity (if researcher and participant develop a close relationship, this can make researcher subjective to pps responses)
- lack of confidentiality (if the questions asked makes pps feel uncomfortable or intrudes their life, making it unethical)
Define naturalistic observation
A study conducted in the participant’s natural environment without the interference of the researchers in the physical or social environment
Define controlled observation
A study conducted where the researcher watches the participant in a situation where the social and physical environment is manipulated by the researcher
Define unstructured observation
A study where the observer records the participant’s behavior without a predefined criteria
Define structured observation
A study where the observer records the participant’s behavior according to a pre-established criteria
Define behavioral categories
The activities recorded in an observation, and they should be operationalized
Define inter-observer reliability
When two observers watching the same event produce the same records
Define participant observer
When the observer watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting
Define non-participant observer
When the observer doesn’t get involved in the situation being studied
Define overt observation
When the role of the observer is obvious and visible to the participants
Define covert observation
When the role of the observer is hidden and unknown to the participants
Strengths and weaknesses of covert observation
+ High validity (pps don’t know they’re being observed)
+ Low social desirability (because observer is hidden, pps are less likely to act on social desirability)
- Less validity & reliability (data collection is more difficult as observer has to watch participants from a distance and disguise their role)
- no informed consent (pps don’t know they’re being observed)
Strengths and weaknesses of observations
+ High eco validity (pps are more likely to behave naturally in a naturalistic environment)
+ Important behaviors are recorded in unstructured observation
+ high validity (pps don’t know they’re being recorded in covert observation)
- Hard to collect all data accurately in all activities in unstructured observations
- Ethical deception/no informed consent (pps may be uncomfortable without knowing they’re being observed)
- High social desirability in overt observations (pps change their behavior as they know they’re being watched)
Define co-variables
Two measured variables in a correlation
Define correlation
A research method that looks for a relationship between two measured variables where a change in one variable is related to a change in the other variable
Define causal relationship
A link between two variables where a change in one variable causes a change in the other variable
Positive correlation
A relationship between two variables where both variables increase together
Negative correlation
A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other
Strengths and weaknesses of correlations
+ high reliability (if measures of both variables are consistent)
+ Useful (correlations don’t need any manipulation, so can be used when it’s not practical or ethical to conduct experiments)
Define longitudinal studies
A research method that follows participants over a long period of time to look at changes in variables due to experiences (like interventions, drugs)
Define cross-sectional study
Compares people at different ages or stages by comparing different groups of participants at one point in time
Define cohort
A group of participants that are selected at the same age or stage
Define longitudinal design
An experimental design where the same participants are tested on two or more occasions over a long time
Define situational variable
A confounding variable caused by the aspect of the environment
Define confounding variables
Extraneous factors that interfere with the relationship between the experimenter’s IV and DV
Define sample attrition
This is the loss of participants from the sample overtime due to reasons like boredom, desire to discontinue, death, etc
Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal studies
+ High validity (same pps are retested overtime, so researchers can ensure any changes in pps isn’t due to pps variables)
+ Data can be collected and analysed as researchers look at pps over long time
- Sample attrition
- Sample attrition leads to low gen (makes study less representative of other populations)
- low reliability (some variables may be introduced or change, leads to low reliability)
- time consuming
Define opportunity sampling
Where participants are chosen because they’re available
Strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling
+ Quick and easy to select participants as they’re readily available
- Low gen (sample may be less representative as the variety of pps available is likely to be limited)
Define volunteer sampling
Where participants are invited to participate and willingly take part in the study (like through e-mails/advertisements)
Strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling
+ Quick and convenient as pps come to the researcher
- Low gen (sample may not be representative as pps who respond may be similar e.g: they all have free time)
Define random sampling
Sampling all members of the population where they’re selected in an unbiased way (like randomly selecting paper names/numbers out of a hat)
Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
+ High (likely to be more representative as a variety of pps in population are likely to be chosen)
- In reality, sample can be low in gen (pps in sample may not be equally chosen as not all pps are accessible)
Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data
+ objective measures are used
+ easy to compare and analyze data
+ high reliability (scales and questions used)
- low validity (data collection methods limit response choices)
Strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data
+ High validity (pps can express their opinions, feelings freely/aren’t limited to a few choices)
- Data is subjective (researcher’s interpretations may differ and be biased to their own feelings/opinions)
- Less gen (if detailed information is only gathered for one or few pps)
What’s a bar chart?
A graph used for data to show separate categories and total or average scores
What are histograms?
A graph used to display continuous data
What are scatter graphs?
A graph that displays data from a correlational study
State ethical guidelines of human participants
- privacy
- confidentiality
- protection from physical/psychological harm
- valid consent
- right to withdraw
- lack of deception
- debriefing
State ethical guidelines of animal participants
- housing
- pain/suffering
- rewards, deprivation & aversive stimuli
- species
- replacement
- no. of animals
Define species guideline
The chosen species should be the one to least likely suffer pain
Define no. of animals guideline
No. of animals should be kept at a minimum to ensure the study is high in reliability and validity
Define pain/suffering guideline
Physiological and psychological pain should be avoided in animals like distress, injury, or diseases
Define housing guideline
Overcrowding or isolation can be distressing to animals depending on their social behavior
- Isolation: more socially behaving animals will feel distresses in an isolated environment
- Overcrowding: Too many animals around can cause distress and aggression which can lead to physical harm
Define reward/deprivation guideline
- Deprivation is removing resources that are important to the anima
- Animals’ needs such as food and water should be considered before the study as they shouldn’t be deprived of necessities
Define test-retest procedure
This measures the consistency of a task where the test is used twice and if the participants’ two sets of scores are similar, then it’s high in reliability
