Non-experimental research methods Flashcards
Define observation
When a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that’s being studied
Define correlation
A correlation is used to measure the extent of a relationship between two quantitative variables that are neither manipulated by the experimenter
Define naturalistic observations
This is an observation carried out in a natural setting where the observer doesn’t interfere or try influence the behaviour being observed
Strengths of naturalistic observations
- High eco validity (takes place in real-life setting)
- Low demand characteristics (pps aren’t aware they’re being studied)
Weaknesses of naturalistic observations
- Less control over extraneous variables (hard to determine casualty)
- Low replicability (reality of findings can’t be checked)
Define controlled observation
An observation that takes place in a controlled setting, usually behind a one-way mirror so observers can’t be seen
Strengths of controlled observation
- Less extraneous variables (takes place in a controlled environment)
- High reliability (observation procedure can be easily replicated)
Weaknesses of controlled observation
- Low eco validity (setting is artificial like in a lab)
Define structured observation
When an observer records participants’ behaviours according to a predetermined coding system. This can be done through event and time sampling
Define event and time sampling
Event sampling: An observer records every time the target behaviour occurs
Time sampling: An observer records at set time intervals (eg: every 20 mins)
Strengths of structured observation
- Predetermined checklists allows for objective, measurable data that can be collected and statistically analysed
- Allows for more than one observer (due to checklist) which increases reliability
Weaknesses of structured observation
- Predetermined checklists may make observation more restrictive and doesn’t always explain why behaviour is happening
Define unstructured observations
When an observer records participants in a qualitative manner over a period of time without the use of a behavioural checklist
Strengths of unstructured observations
- researchers can collect in-depth, rich qualitative data which can help explain why behaviour has occurred
- observers aren’t limited to prior theoretical expectations
Weaknesses of unstructured observations
- researchers may be drawn to eye-catching behaviour which may not be representative of all behaviours
- more subjective and can’t be comparable across all researchers
Define overt observation
When participants are aware and know they’re being observed
Strengths and weakness of overt observation
+ fulfils ethical guidelines where participants know they’re being observed compared to a covert observation
- increases demand characteristics as participants may behave differently knowing they are being observed (Hawthorne effect)
- reduces validity from behaviour
Define covert observation
When participants are unaware they they are being observed
Strength and weakness of covert observation
+ increases validity and reduces demand characteristics as behaviour is more likely to be natural
- breaks ethical guidelines as there is deception and participants don’t get informed consent about being observed
Define participant observation
When the observer is involved in the participant group and may not be known to other participants
Strength and weaknesses of participant observation
+ allows for researcher to gain deep understanding of the group
- participants’ behaviours may be influenced when researcher is present
- less objectivity as researcher is part of the participant group
Define non-participant observation
When the observer is separate from the participant group
Strength and weakness of non-participant observation
+ more objective as researchers are not part of the participant group
- harder to gain qualitative data to understand the reasons for participants’ behaviours
Define inter-rater reliability/inter-observer reliability
When two researchers watching the same event produce the same records/data
Define case study
It’s a detailed study conducted on a single individual or a distinctive group of people
Strengths of longitudinal study
- allows researchers to look at changes over time in results
- high validity (objectives of the study are established before data collection)
Weaknesses of longitudinal study
- costly and time consuming
- participants may drop out resulting in a smaller sample size (attrition)
- Large sample size is needed otherwise researchers don’t have enough data to collect
Define self-report
It’s a research method where participants are asked to report on their own emotions, feelings, and abilities. This can either be an interview or a questionnaire
Strengths of a self-report
- allows participants to share their own experiences which provides in-depth qualitative data
- easy way to gather large amounts of data
- easier than lab exp
- less time consuming
- helps explain reasons behind why certain behaviours occur
- can gather detailed data from wide range of participants (online)
Weaknesses of a self-report
- Social desirability bias (pps want to come across a certain way so they’re untruthful and leads to lower validity)
- pps misunderstand the question
- depends on willingness of participant to provide detailed data
- depends on pps ability to understand their own thoughts and emotions to answer questions
Define questionnaire and types
A questionnaire is a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to
Types:
- likert scale (quanti)
- rating scale (quanti)
- open ended (quali)
- closed ended (qunati
Strengths of questionnaires
- anonymised
- less social desirability bias as no interviewer is present and it’s often anonymous
- large amounts of data can be gathered which increased generalizability and representativeness of study
- data can be compared with means and averages
- data can be easily analysed compared to interviews (if it’s quantitative)
Weaknesses of questionnaires
- not as rich quantitative data compared to interviews
- options given to participants may not reflect their actual opinions and they may be forced to choose a response
- pps may be given leading questions
- pps may feel bored or give up and not finish
Strengths and weakness of structured interviews
+ quick to conduct
+ reduced differences between interviewers (replicability)
+ standardized questions means higher reliability and replicability
- interviewers can’t deviate from topic or ask extra questions
Strength and weaknesses of unstructured interviews
+ more flexibility, deeper insights, rich qualitative data
- difficult to analyse so much qualitative
- social desirability bias, lower validity
Define correlation and the types of correlation
A correlation is the relationship between 2 variables.
- positive: when both two variables increase
- negative: when one variable increases and the other decreases
- zero: when both variables have no relationship with each other
