Non-experimental research methods

Question 1

Define observation

Answer 1

When a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that’s being studied

Question 2

Define correlation

Answer 2

A correlation is used to measure the extent of a relationship between two quantitative variables that are neither manipulated by the experimenter

Question 3

Define naturalistic observations

Answer 3

This is an observation carried out in a natural setting where the observer doesn’t interfere or try influence the behaviour being observed

Question 4

Strengths of naturalistic observations

Answer 4

• High eco validity (takes place in real-life setting)
• Low demand characteristics (pps aren’t aware they’re being studied)

Question 5

Weaknesses of naturalistic observations

Answer 5

• Less control over extraneous variables (hard to determine casualty)
• Low replicability (reality of findings can’t be checked)

Question 6

Define controlled observation

Answer 6

An observation that takes place in a controlled setting, usually behind a one-way mirror so observers can’t be seen

Question 7

Strengths of controlled observation

Answer 7

• Less extraneous variables (takes place in a controlled environment)
• High reliability (observation procedure can be easily replicated)

Question 8

Weaknesses of controlled observation

Answer 8

• Low eco validity (setting is artificial like in a lab)

Question 9

Define structured observation

Answer 9

When an observer records participants’ behaviours according to a predetermined coding system. This can be done through event and time sampling

Question 10

Define event and time sampling

Answer 10

Event sampling: An observer records every time the target behaviour occurs

Time sampling: An observer records at set time intervals (eg: every 20 mins)

Question 11

Strengths of structured observation

Answer 11

• Predetermined checklists allows for objective, measurable data that can be collected and statistically analysed
• Allows for more than one observer (due to checklist) which increases reliability

Question 12

Weaknesses of structured observation

Answer 12

• Predetermined checklists may make observation more restrictive and doesn’t always explain why behaviour is happening

Question 13

Define unstructured observations

Answer 13

When an observer records participants in a qualitative manner over a period of time without the use of a behavioural checklist

Question 14

Strengths of unstructured observations

Answer 14

• researchers can collect in-depth, rich qualitative data which can help explain why behaviour has occurred
• observers aren’t limited to prior theoretical expectations

Question 15

Weaknesses of unstructured observations

Answer 15

• researchers may be drawn to eye-catching behaviour which may not be representative of all behaviours
• more subjective and can’t be comparable across all researchers

Question 16

Define overt observation

Answer 16

When participants are aware and know they’re being observed

Question 17

Strengths and weakness of overt observation

Answer 17

+ fulfils ethical guidelines where participants know they’re being observed compared to a covert observation

• increases demand characteristics as participants may behave differently knowing they are being observed (Hawthorne effect)
• reduces validity from behaviour

Question 18

Define covert observation

Answer 18

When participants are unaware they they are being observed

Question 19

Strength and weakness of covert observation

Answer 19

+ increases validity and reduces demand characteristics as behaviour is more likely to be natural

• breaks ethical guidelines as there is deception and participants don’t get informed consent about being observed

Question 20

Define participant observation

Answer 20

When the observer is involved in the participant group and may not be known to other participants

Question 21

Strength and weaknesses of participant observation

Answer 21

+ allows for researcher to gain deep understanding of the group

• participants’ behaviours may be influenced when researcher is present
• less objectivity as researcher is part of the participant group

Question 22

Define non-participant observation

Answer 22

When the observer is separate from the participant group

Question 23

Strength and weakness of non-participant observation

Answer 23

+ more objective as researchers are not part of the participant group

• harder to gain qualitative data to understand the reasons for participants’ behaviours

Question 24

Define inter-rater reliability/inter-observer reliability

Answer 24

When two researchers watching the same event produce the same records/data

Question 25

Define case study

Answer 25

It's a detailed study conducted on a single individual or a distinctive group of people

Question 26

Strengths of longitudinal study

Answer 26

- allows researchers to look at changes over time in results - high validity (objectives of the study are established before data collection)

Question 27

Weaknesses of longitudinal study

Answer 27

- costly and time consuming - participants may drop out resulting in a smaller sample size (attrition) - Large sample size is needed otherwise researchers don't have enough data to collect

Question 28

Define self-report

Answer 28

It's a research method where participants are asked to report on their own emotions, feelings, and abilities. This can either be an interview or a questionnaire

Question 29

Strengths of a self-report

Answer 29

- allows participants to share their own experiences which provides in-depth qualitative data - easy way to gather large amounts of data - easier than lab exp - less time consuming - helps explain reasons behind why certain behaviours occur - can gather detailed data from wide range of participants (online)

Question 30

Weaknesses of a self-report

Answer 30

- Social desirability bias (pps want to come across a certain way so they're untruthful and leads to lower validity) - pps misunderstand the question - depends on willingness of participant to provide detailed data - depends on pps ability to understand their own thoughts and emotions to answer questions

Question 31

Define questionnaire and types

Answer 31

A questionnaire is a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to Types: - likert scale (quanti) - rating scale (quanti) - open ended (quali) - closed ended (qunati

Question 32

Strengths of questionnaires

Answer 32

- anonymised - less social desirability bias as no interviewer is present and it's often anonymous - large amounts of data can be gathered which increased generalizability and representativeness of study - data can be compared with means and averages - data can be easily analysed compared to interviews (if it's quantitative)

Question 33

Weaknesses of questionnaires

Answer 33

- not as rich quantitative data compared to interviews - options given to participants may not reflect their actual opinions and they may be forced to choose a response - pps may be given leading questions - pps may feel bored or give up and not finish

Question 34

Strengths and weakness of structured interviews

Answer 34

+ quick to conduct + reduced differences between interviewers (replicability) + standardized questions means higher reliability and replicability - interviewers can't deviate from topic or ask extra questions

Question 35

Strength and weaknesses of unstructured interviews

Answer 35

+ more flexibility, deeper insights, rich qualitative data - difficult to analyse so much qualitative - social desirability bias, lower validity

Question 36

Define correlation and the types of correlation

Answer 36

A correlation is the relationship between 2 variables. - positive: when both two variables increase - negative: when one variable increases and the other decreases - zero: when both variables have no relationship with each other