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research methods Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 3 types of hypothesis?

A

directional
non directional
null

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2
Q

what is a directional hypothesis?

A

makes a precise prediction of the exact direction results are expected to go in

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3
Q

what is a non directional hypothesis?

A

makes a cautious prediction and states a change but not the direction of that change

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4
Q

what is a null hypothesis?

A

predicts that there will be no change or relationship/it does the opposite of the experimental design

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5
Q

what are extraneous variables?
give an example

A

variables that affect ALL pps involved e.g time of day

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6
Q

what are confounding variables?
give an example

A

variables that affect SOME of the pps involved e.g hungry

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7
Q

what are the 3 types of experiment?

A

lab
field
natural

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8
Q

strengths of a lab experiment (3)

A
  • high level of control of both the IV and EV
  • easy to replicate
  • can conclude cause and effect
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9
Q

weaknesses of a lab experiment (3)

A
  • lack ecological validity
  • high chance of investigator and participant effect
  • lack mundane realism
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10
Q

strengths of a field experiment (3)

A
  • can conclude cause and effect
  • higher level of ecological validity
  • reduction in participant effects e.g demand characteristics
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11
Q

weaknesses of a field experiment (3)

A
  • less control due to more natural setting
  • more time consuming
  • random allocations to conditions is difficult
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12
Q

a strength of a natural experiment

A
  • high levels of ecological validity - can generalise findings
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13
Q

weaknesses of a natural experiment (3)

A
  • cannot conclude cause and effect - problems with internal validity
  • no random allocations to conditions
  • conditions vary naturally
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14
Q

what is a case study?

A

gathering of information about an individual or group of people that typically involves the production of a case history

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15
Q

strengths of a case study (4)

A
  • produce rich data (qualitative)
  • high levels of ecological validity - generalise findings
  • can be used to investigate rare human behaviour
  • lead to new psychological insights
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16
Q

weaknesses of a case study (5)

A
  • difficult to replicate - hard to establish reliability of data
  • possibility of researcher bias is high
  • retrospective data collection is unreliable
  • ethical issues e.g confidentiality
  • low population validity
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17
Q

strengths of correlational studies (4)

A
  • can establish a relationship between 2 variables
  • procedures can be repeated to confirm findings
  • can stimulate areas for additional research
  • can be used when it would be unethical or impractical to manipulate variables
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18
Q

what are the 2 types of self report methods?
what is a common research method?

A

questionnaires and interviews

diary studies

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19
Q

strengths of self report methods (2)

A
  • research pps don’t have to recollect exact details from past events so less likely to experience recall problems
  • use diary entries as a starting point for understanding of behaviour
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20
Q

weaknesses of self report methods (2)

A
  • data may be untruthful and subject to social desirability bias
  • diaries are problematic - pps may not want to record their daily activities
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21
Q

strengths of questionnaires (3)

A
  • researchers don’t have to be present - reduction in investigator effects
  • collect the same information from large samples quickly and conveniently
  • ask people directly how they think and feel
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22
Q

weaknesses of questionnaires (3)

A
  • social desirability
  • sample may be bias as only certain individuals fill in questionnaires
  • may obtain different interpretations of questions
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23
Q

what are the 2 types of interviews?

A

structured and semi structured

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24
Q

what is a structured interview?

A

questions have exactly the same wording and order for each interviewee

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25
Q

what is a semi structured interview?

A

same questions for each interviewee but the order may vary

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26
Q

strengths of structured interviews (3)

A
  • easily repeated as questions are standardised
  • requires less interviewing skills
  • easier to analyse because answers are more predictable
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27
Q

weaknesses of structured interviews (2)

A
  • interviewer bias - interviewer’s expectations may influence answers
  • reliability may be affected by the same interviewer behaving differently on different occasions
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28
Q

strengths of semi structured interviews (2)

A
  • more detailed information
  • can access information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions
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29
Q

weaknesses of semi structured interviews (2)

A
  • less objective as the interviewer develops questions on the spot
  • requires well trained interviewers - more expensive to produce reliable results
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30
Q

what are the 4 types of observations?

A

naturalistic
controlled
participant
non - participant

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31
Q

advantages of naturalistic (2)

A
  • natural behaviour is observed
  • high in ecological validity
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32
Q

disadvantages of naturalistic (3)

A
  • little control over confounding variables
  • less reliable
  • less representative (smaller sample)
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33
Q

advantages of controlled (3)

A
  • easily replicated
  • quicker and easier to analyse - bigger sample
  • control over confounding variables
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34
Q

disadvantages of controlled (2)

A
  • behaviour may not be natural/normal
  • low ecological validity
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35
Q

advantages of participant (2)

A
  • easier to understand observee’s behaviour
  • high in ecological validity
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36
Q

disadvantages of participant (2)

A
  • hard to record observations - often done retrospectively so unreliable
  • observer can become involved with pps and data can be subjected
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37
Q

advantages of non-participant (2)

A
  • observations can be made as they happen and are more reliable
  • lack of contact means the observer can remain objective
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38
Q

disadvantage of non-participant

A

behaviour may be recorded but the meaning behind it is unknown

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39
Q

what is an example of a controlled and non-participant observation?

A

Bandura’s Bobo doll research

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40
Q

what are the 3 locations of research?

A

lab
field
online

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41
Q

advantages of lab research (3)

A
  • measure research variables more easily
  • control confounding or extraneous variables
  • easy to replicate research
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42
Q

disadvantages of lab research (2)

A
  • pps may demonstrate artificial behaviour - low ecological validity
  • some research can’t be conducted in a lab because of the nature of the behaviour being researched
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43
Q

advantages of field research (3)

A
  • behaviour is more natural
  • useful if you want to minimise the artificial nature of research
  • examine behaviour in a huge range of contexts - difficult in a lab
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44
Q

disadvantages of field research (3)

A
  • difficult to control confounding or extraneous variables
  • can’t replicate research due to the difference in settings
  • can’t utilise a full complement of equipment
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45
Q

advantages of online research (4)

A
  • access a large group of pps
  • more diverse sample so less culturally bias
  • cost effective
  • data analysis is quicker as pps have already transcribed their responses
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46
Q

disadvantages of online research (3)

A
  • limited as most are surveys or questionnaires
  • ethical issues such as consent and protection from harm
  • difficult to appropriately debrief pps
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47
Q

what are the 3 types of experimental design?

A

repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs

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48
Q

what is repeated measures?

A

the same pps in each condition

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49
Q

what are independent groups?

A

different pps in each condition

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50
Q

what are matched pairs?

A

different but similar pps in each condition

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51
Q

strengths of repeated measures (3)

A
  • subject variables - extraneous variables are kept constant
  • better statistical tests can be used because of less variation
  • fewer subjects required
52
Q

weaknesses of repeated measures (3)

A
  • order effects become constant when one condition is done after another
  • demand characteristics
  • different tests may be needed
53
Q

strengths of independent groups (3)

A
  • order effects do not influence second condition
  • demand characteristics are limited
  • same test can be used
54
Q

weaknesses of independent groups (3)

A
  • subject variables differ which could become confounding variables
  • worse statistical tests as less variation
  • more subjects required - less economical
55
Q

strengths of matched pairs (5)

A
  • subject variables are more constant
  • better statistical test as less variation
  • order effects do not occur
  • demand characteristics are limited
  • same test can be used
56
Q

weaknesses of matched pairs (3)

A
  • subject variables can never perfectly be matched
  • time consuming and difficult
  • more subjects required - less economical
57
Q

what is counterbalancing?

A

method we can use to minimise the impact of order effects with a repeated measures design

58
Q

what are the 7 sampling techniques?

A

random
opportunity
systematic
stratified
quota
volunteer
snowball

59
Q

what is random sampling?

A

every participant within the target population has an equal chance at selection. numbers or names are ‘draw out of a hat’ and ideally shuffled in between each selection

60
Q

strength of random sampling

A

random sampling in large numbers is the best chance of an unbiased representative sample of a target population

61
Q

weaknesses of random sampling (2)

A
  • the larger the target population the more difficult it is to sample randomly
  • true random sampling is very time consuming therefore very rare
62
Q

what is opportunity sampling?

A

using those who are most convenient or most available to you

63
Q

strength of opportunity sampling

A

the easiest most economical method of sampling - takes less time to locate sample

64
Q

weakness of opportunity sampling

A

inevitably produces a biased sample - drawn from a small part of a target population

65
Q

what is systematic sampling?

A

using a pre-determined system to select pps. the numerical interval is applied consistently (select every nth___)

66
Q

strength of systematic sampling

A

reduces the level of bias in the sample as pps are selected using an objective system

67
Q

weakness of systematic sampling

A

not truly unbiased/random unless you select a number using a random method

68
Q

what is stratified sampling?

A

sub-groups within a target population are identified. pps are obtained from each sub-group in proportion to their occurrence in the target population

69
Q

strength of stratified sampling

A

likely to produce a highly representative sample compared to other methods

70
Q

weakness of stratified sampling

A

uneconomical method - very time consuming

71
Q

what is quota sampling?

A

same as stratified sampling but for a quote sample this selection is made using non random techniques

72
Q

strength of quota sampling

A

likely to produce a highly representative sample compared to other methods

73
Q

weakness of quota sampling

A

uneconomical method - very time consuming

74
Q

what is volunteer sampling?

A

using advertisements/leaflets, posters, radio etc to announce the research and request volunteers for the sample

75
Q

strengths of volunteer sampling (2)

A
  • relatively convenient, informed consent - ethical
  • gives a variety of pps which makes it less bias and more representative
76
Q

weakness of volunteer sampling

A

may systematically bias the sample in a particular direction

77
Q

what is snowball sampling?

A

start off with a small number of pps. these recruit further pps from their social network and the sample grows gradually over time

78
Q

strength of snowball sampling

A

enables a researcher to locate groups of people who may be difficult to access

79
Q

weakness of snowball sampling

A

likely to be a bias sample and not be a good cross section from the population - made of friends and family

80
Q

what are the 9 ethical issues?

A

deception
valid consent
protection from harm
confidentiality
privacy
right to withdraw
risk to the pp’s values, relationships, status or privacy
working with vulnerable individuals
working with animals

81
Q

what is internal reliability?
give an example for Milgram’s study

A

a measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself
standardised procedures - scripted prods recorded ‘learner’s’ reactions

82
Q

what method do you use to assess internal reliability?
what is it?

A

split half method
splitting the test or questionnaire concerned into 2 parts after data has been obtained from the pps e.g comparing results obtained from odd and even numbered questions

83
Q

how can we improve internal reliability?

A

using standardised procedures so all pps have the same experiences as one another

84
Q

what is external reliability?
give an example for Milgram’s study

A

assess the consistency of a measure from one use to another

when the study was replicated similar results were found

85
Q

how can we assess external reliability?
what is it?

A

test-retest method
presenting the pps with the same test on different occasions with no feedback given after the first presentation

86
Q

how can we improve external reliability?

A

standardised procedures: essential that the test is administered in the exact same way in the test and re-test phases in order to have any chance of producing the same outcome

87
Q

what is observer reliability?

A

the extent to which 2 or more observers are consistent in their recordings

88
Q

how do we assess observer reliability?
what is it?

A

inter-rater reliability method
measuring the extent to which researchers, scoring the same pps, achieve consistency of measurement with each other

89
Q

how can we improve observer reliability?

A

variables/behaviours will need to be carefully operationalised so that each observer has a shared and accurate understanding of what behaviours to study and record

90
Q

what is internal validity?
give an example for Milgram’s study

A

a measure of the extent to which the researcher has measured what they set out to measure
low internal validity due to demand characteristics

91
Q

how can we improve internal validity?
give examples (3)

A

control/eliminate confounding and extraneous variables:
- demand characteristics - single blind techniques
- order effects - independent groups design
- participant variables - repeated measures/matched pairs design

92
Q

what is external validity?
give an example for Milgram’s study

A

a measure of the extent to which we can generalise the findings outside the context of the investigation
poor external validity - all male and american pps, academic setting, conformist

93
Q

how can we improve external validity? (3)

A
  • adopting field or natural methods as opposed to lab based studies
  • look at sampling techniques - random and stratified methods are more likely to produce representative samples
  • repeat the research across different times, cultures, groups of pps
94
Q

5 ways to asses validity

A

face validity
content validity
concurrent validity
construct validity
predictive validity

95
Q

what is operationlisation?

A

when a variable is defined by the researcher and a way of
measuring that variable is developed for the research

96
Q

what are the 5 steps of content analysis?

A
  1. familiarise yourself with the data
  2. identify key themes/categories
  3. code the data
  4. count the number of instances of evidence within each category
  5. draw conclusions
97
Q

what are the 2 ways that the research can carry out the second step of content analysis?

A

top-down: researcher decides on appropriate categories before beginning the research
bottom-up: the categories or themes emerge when examining the data

98
Q

what are the 5 types of graphical representation?

A
  • bar chart
  • line graph
  • bar chart
  • histogram
  • scatter graph
99
Q

what do correlational studies measure?

A

the relationship between 2 variables

100
Q

what are the variables measured in correlational studies known as?

A

co-variables

101
Q

define:
positive correlation
negative correlation
zero correlation

A

the 2 variables increase together
as 1 variable increases the other decreases
no relationship between the variables

102
Q

what is correlation co-efficient?

A

a numerical representation of the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables.

103
Q

what can the correlation co-efficient range between?

A

-1.0 and +1.0

104
Q

what does -1.0 and +1.0 represent?

A

-1.0 = perfect negative correlation
+1.0 = perfect positive correlation

105
Q

what indicates a stronger correlation in correlation co-efficient?

A

the number being closer to 1

106
Q

the strengths of correlations (2)

A
  • can be used when it would be unethical or impractical to manipulate variables and can make use of existing data
  • can establish a relationship between two variables if correlation is significant. If the correlation is not significant then you can probably rule out a causal relationship.
107
Q

weakness of correlations

A
  • correlational studies do not establish cause and effect; it only establishes a relationship between two variables. It may be that a third variable that has not been identified is creating the relationship
108
Q

what are the measures of central tendancy?

A

mean
median
mode

109
Q

strength of the mean

A

takes all the scores into account making it a sensitive measure of central tendency

110
Q

weaknesses of the mean (2)

A
  • can be very misleading if the distribution differs from normal and there are 1 or 2 extreme scores in one direction
  • can only be used with interval or ratio data
111
Q

strengths of the median (2)

A
  • unaffected by a few extreme scores because it focuses only on scores from the middle of the distribution
  • can be used with ordinal data
112
Q

weakness of the median

A

ignores most of the scores so is less sensitive than the mean. also not always representative of the scores obtained

113
Q

strengths of the mode (2)

A
  • unaffected by 1 or 2 extreme scores and is the easiest to work out
  • can be used with nominal data
114
Q

what are the 4 levels of measurement from basic to complex?

A

nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio

115
Q

what is nominal data?
give an example

A

the data is in separate categories
e.g. grouping people according to their favourite football team

116
Q

what is ordinal data?
give an example

A

the data can be ordered in some way
e.g. asking people to put football teams in order of liking

117
Q

what is interval data?

A

data is measured using units of equal intervals

118
Q

what is ratio data?
give an example

A

when there is a true zero point
e.g. most measures of physical quantities

119
Q

what are the 2 measures of dispersion?

A

range
standard deviation

120
Q

strengths of the range (2)

A
  • quick to calculate and provides direct information
    -if 2 sets of data have the same mean, the range can offer another way of describing the data
121
Q

weakness of the range

A

doesn’t provide any idea of the distribution of values around the centre, nor does it take individual values into account

122
Q

what does standard deviation measure?

A

the spread of data around the mean

123
Q

what are the 8 design options for questionnaires and interviews?

A
  • open or closed questions
  • question order
  • wording
  • avoid leading questions
  • avoid double-barrelled questions
  • avoid emotive questions
  • avoid vagueness or ambiguity
  • avoid inappropriate assumptions
124
Q

strength of qualitative data

A

can successfully reduce complex forms of behaviour to a manageable number of categories of theoretical importance

125
Q

weakness of qualitative data

A

reported findings tend to be unreliable and difficult to replicate due to the fact that this data is subjective and impressionistic

126
Q

strength of quantitative data

A

relatively easy to analyse in comparison to qualitative data using descriptive and inferential statistics

127
Q

weakness of quantitative data

A

may over simplify reality therefore any conclusions drawn may be effectively meaningless

psychology (8 decks)

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