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Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by ‘the results were significant at p<0.05?

A

There is a less than 5% chance that there is no real difference between the conditions.

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2
Q

What are the 2 ways to test validity?

A
  1. Face validity - whether the measure appears to test what it claims to.
  2. Concurrent validity - when a new measure is devised (e.g., new IQ test or new questionnaire), we can correalte the results of the new measure with the equivalent current measure.
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3
Q

What is a case study?

A

A study of one particular individual or a small group of individuals. It may report descriptive information about the person relating to events in the individual’s past as well as to significant events which are currently occuring.

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4
Q

Strengths of case studies?

A
  • capture and describe changes which happen overtime rather than a ‘snapshot’ of an experiment
  • data gathered are qualitative (richer source of info)
  • reminds us that all individuals are unique
  • allows us to study things which we may not be able to in any other way e.g., Clive Wearing, can’t inflict brain damage just for a study
  • a single case study which contradicts a theory is enough to cause that theory to be altered
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5
Q

Limitations of case studies?

A
  • method is often non-standardised which can prevent replication
  • data are retrospective. Recall of events and experiences might be prone to confabulation (replacing fact with fantasy)
  • researcher’s beliefs might affect the analysis of the behaviour studied
  • difficulty of generalising any findings to explanations of the behaviour of people in general
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6
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A technique for analysing data according to themes or categories

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7
Q

What are the 4 key stages of content analysis?

A
  1. coding - decide on categories which are going to be used
  2. work through transcripts/recordings
  3. count the number of times the categories our in the material you’re analysing
  4. inter-rater reliability may need to be used to check data
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8
Q

What are the 4 stages of inter-rater reliability?

A
  1. use anohter researcher to carry out the same analysis
  2. agree the categories to be used beforehand
  3. the second researcher reads the transcripts/views the recordings independently and tallies the number of times each category occurs.
  4. correlate both sets of results and a positive correlation of +0.8 or above menas the data has good reliability.
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9
Q

Evaluation of content analysis (strengths and limitations)

A

Strengths:
- allows researchers to study people they would have little/no access to. (e.g. magazine)
- there are fewer ethical issues as there is no or little direct contact with participants
- good external validity as it uses material which has been naturally generated
Limitation:
- might lack construct validity (the degree to which a test measures the contruct or concept that it’s supposed to measure - thinking you’re measuring one thing when you’re actually measuring something else)

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10
Q

How does thematic analysis differ from content analysis?

A

It involves the gathering of qualitative data (no counting involved, just seeing whether themes/categories are there or not), but uses the same types of material as content analysis (transcipts, recordings). Advantages are same for content analysis as thematic analysis

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11
Q

Limitations to thematic analysis?

A
  • potential misinterpretation of thoughts and behaviours as researchers have little/no contact with people
  • interpretation is subjective because it’s based on opinion and therefore may differ from one researcher to another
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12
Q

What are the 2 ways to test reliability?

A
  1. test-retest reliability: used when participants are completing a test or questionnaire. The same group of participants complete the test/questionnaire and then complete it again after a suitable time period. Results are then correlated
  2. Inter-observer reliability: used in observational studies. Behavioural categories are clearly defined and agreed beforehand and sometimes a pilot study will be carried out to check both observers are recording behaviours in the same way. The observers recrod the data in tally chart independently, then correlate results.
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13
Q

How to improve relability in:
- questionnaires
- interviews
- observations
- experiments

A

Questionnaires = test-retest. If this fails to show good reliability, the questionnaire will need to be reviewed and questions withdrawn or rewritten.
Interviews = the same interviewer should be used each time. Training should also be given to avoid leading or ambiguous questions. Structured interviews with set questions are more likely to be reliable.
Observations = behavioural categories need to be properly operationalised to avoid any misinterpretatoin or overlap. There should also be training for observers to ensure they’re recording behaviour in a similar way.
Experiments = method, instructions, procedure should all be standardised to ensure participants receive the same treatment

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14
Q

What is the difference between internal and external validity?

A

internal = whether the results are due to manipulation of the IV rather than another variable.
external = whether the results can be generalised to real life settings, the wider population, over time and to other cultures.

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15
Q

What are the 4 types of external validities?

A
  1. ecological
  2. cultural
  3. temporal
  4. population
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16
Q

How to improve validity in:
- experiments
- questionnaires
- observations
- qualitative research

A

experiments = standardisation which reduces investigator effects. Single and double-blind studies which reduce demand characteristics
questionnaires = lie scale (truthful indicator) which highlights any inconsistency and social desirability. Anonymity can also increase validity
Observations = covert observations means behaviour observed is more authentic and more valid. These types of observations have better ecological validity but more ethical issues. Clear, objective, behavioural categories which don’t overlap can also increase validity.
qualitative research = rich in detail, provides in-depth explanations for behaviour meaning it has greater validity. Triangulation can help enhance validity, which is hwne other poeple involved with the participant are interviewed (e.g., friends, family etc)

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17
Q

Difference between field experiments and natural experiments?

A

Field - carried out in natural settings, possible to manipulate the IV but oftne participants are unaware they’re taking part (an experiment anywhere outside a laboratory)
Natural - not possible to manipulate the IV. It is a situation being recorded that already exists e.g., going to the lunch hall and measuring the amount of boys and girls that walk in.

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18
Q

What is a quasi-experiment?

A

There is an IV but it cannot be manipulated e.g., gender, age, height, intelligence, music ability. You can’t put a female participant in a male group.

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19
Q

Evaluate the use of independent groups as an experimental design

A

Strength: same materials can be used in each condition. No order effects like practice or fatigue because different participants are used in each condition. Participants likely won’t know aim of the study either as they are only exposed to one condition.
Limitation: requires more participants. There may be participant variables which differ in each condition and they might confound the results (e.g., IQ, memory, personality)

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20
Q

Evaluate the use of repeated measures as an experimental design

A

Advantages: eliminates participant variables and fewer participants are needed.
Disadvantages: there may be order effects like practice or fatigue. This means a participant may improve on their performance in the second condition. Or fatigue could affect the participant and they perform worse. Participants may work out the aim of the study which may lead to demand characteristics. As participants take part in both conditions, the same set of materials cannot be used which presents the problem of finding 2 sets of material which are equivalent so they can be compared.

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21
Q

Evaluate the use of matched pairs as an experimental design

A

Advantage: reduces participant variables in each condition. There are no order effects, participant remains naiive about aim of the study meaning demand characteristics are unlikely.
Disadvantages: very time consuming, sometimes challenging to match participants on particular variables. It’s impossible to eliminate all participant variables even with identical twins.

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22
Q

What is samping bias?

A

When the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population

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23
Q

What are the 5 sampling techniques?

A
  1. random
  2. systematic
  3. stratified
  4. volunteer
  5. opportunity
24
Q

Evaluate random sampling as a sampling technique

A

Advantage: no researcher bias, should be representative, everyone has an equal chance of being selected
Disadvantage: participant attrition (dropping out) can have a biasing effect

25
Q

Evaluate systematic sampling as a sampling technique

A

Advantage: no researcher bias
Disadvantage: not every person in target population has an equal chance of being selected meaning isn’t representative of target population, results cannot be generalised

26
Q

Evaluate stratified sampling as a sampling technique

A

Advantage: reflects proportions of population, representative of population
Disadvantage: time consuming, participant attrition

27
Q

Evaluate volunteer sampling as a sampling technique

A

Advantage: convenient, easy method
Disadvantage: isn’t representative, only a certain type of person is likely to volunteer, difficult to generalise results

28
Q

Evaluate opportunity sampling as a sampling technique

A

Advantage: quick and easy, convenient
Disadvantage: researcher bias in selection of participants, may not be representative of population

29
Q

Explain why statistical testing is used in psychological research?

A

To determine whether the likelihood that the relationship is due to chance

30
Q

Explain the benefit of using randomisation to produce word lists for a study?

A

It means there is no researcher bias - the investigator has no control over which words appear on the list.

31
Q

Explain why it may be more appropriate to use SD rather than range

A

SD takes into account every piece of data whereas the range focuses on the highest and lowest scores, meaning the range doesn’t take into account the other sets of data. The SD isn’t distorted by extreme scores unlike the range.

32
Q

What are the 4 features of a science?

A
  1. Falsifiability
  2. Objectivity
  3. Replicability
  4. Paradigm
33
Q

What is a causal explanation?

A

Where all variables are controlled except the IV and DV, to establish cause and effect - any differences in the DV must be caused by the manipulation of the IV.

34
Q

What are 3 ways to reduce researcher bias?

A
  1. Standardised instructions
  2. Operationalised variables
  3. Double-blind study
35
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

Where a scientific theory or hypothesis must be empirically testable to see if it’s false.

36
Q

What did Kuhn argue the 3 distinct stages of a science were?

A
  1. Pre-science: generally no accepted paradigm
  2. Normal science: generally accepted paradigm e.g., Newton’s law of mechanics
  3. Revolutionary science: paradigm shift (old paradigm being replaced with a new one)
37
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A shared set of theoretical assumptions about how behaviour/thought is explained/studied
Psychology is known as a pre-science, due to the many different approaches (biological, psychodynamic)

38
Q

What is an abstract in a psychological report?

A

It’s written at the end but placed at the beginning of a report - it includes the aims, methods, design, findings and conclusions.

39
Q

When writing a method, what are the 4 key points you must always include to ensure it’s replicable?

A
  1. Design:
    - choice of method (experiment, correlation)
    - choice of experimental design (repeated measures)
    - choice of techniques (time sampling)
    - control measures (counterbalancing)
  2. Participants - target population, sampling method, sampling size and details like age, gender etc.
  3. Materials
  4. Procedure - standardised instructions, debrief
40
Q

How should a journal and book reference be written?

A

Journal:
Surname, initial(s) (year of publication). Title of article. Name of the journal (In italics), volume and
(issue number) (also in italics). Page numbers
Book:
Surname, initial(s), (year of publication). Title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher.

41
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

When the investigator might have an impact on the study’s results which they may not be aware of

42
Q

2 ways to overcome investigator effects

A
  • blind study: the person observing the behaviour has no knowledge of the hypothesis/aim of the study so data isn’t recorded in a biased way
  • double-blind study: the participants and the experimenter don’t know which condition they are in
43
Q

What is peer review?

A

An independent assessment carried out by other experts in the field before an experiment is published.

44
Q

What are the aims of peer review?

A
  • assess the appropriateness of the research (e.g., social implications)
  • suggest or provide recommendations
  • check the research is original
45
Q

Strengths of peer review

A
  • we can generalise findings from a number of studies in the same area
  • can generate further research (certain fields may attract another researcher’s interest)
46
Q

Limitations of peer review

A
  • takes a lot of time and is a slow process
  • they aren’t unbiased: research world is relatively small (researchers know other researchers)
  • publication bias: researchers have been accused of not accepting work so they can publish it first
47
Q

What are the 4 features of a science?

A
  1. reliability
  2. falsifiability
  3. paradigm
  4. objectivity
48
Q

Define meta-analysis and give a strength and limitation

A

Define - large scale sutdy that useds data already published which have researched the same area in psychology.
Strength - can see if there’s an overall pattern in many different studies
Limitation - psychologists may be biased in choosing the studeis to use so may not be representative

49
Q
A
50
Q

Define operationalised

A

clearly specifying/defining observable behaviours to enable the behaviour under investigation to be measured

51
Q

Define standardised procedures

A

the process in each procedure is the exact same to maintain objectivity

52
Q

Define face validity

A

way of measuring validity
Where a behaviour appears at first sight to represent what is being measured

53
Q

Define temporal validity

A

findings from research that took place at a certain point in time accurately reflect the way behaviour would occur at a different time

54
Q
A
55
Q
A

Psychology (10 decks)

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