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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

2 studies that support the genetic explanation for OCD

A
  1. Nestadt: reviewed twin studies, found 68% concordance rate in MZ twins and 31% for DZ twins
  2. Lewis reported that of his OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings
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2
Q

2 studies that support the neural explanation for OCD

A
  1. Gilbert found that OCD patients had bigger thalami than a control sample
  2. Galloway and Duffy found brain scans of OCD patients are structured and function differently to people without OCD
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3
Q

3 AO1 points on the genetic explanation for OCD

A
  • polygenetic, multiple genes that can cause OCD
  • SERT gene: implicated in the efficiency of transport of serotonin across synapses (lower levels of serotonin cause OCD)
  • COMT gene: higher levels of dopamine
  • Diathesis stress model proposes that certain genes leave individuals more likely to develop a disorder but that an environmental stress/trigger is needed to trigger the condition
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4
Q

3 AO1 points on the neural explanation of OCD

A
  • high levels of dopamine are linked to compulsive behaviours
  • low levels of serotonin found in OCD patients
  • basal ganglia: dysfunction can affect communication in these areas which may explain the repetitive behaviours in OCD
  • Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and thalamus: both believed to be overactive resulting in increased anxiety
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5
Q

3 strengths of biological explanations of OCD

A
  1. supporting evidence gives theory empirical weight
  2. the variation of OCD symptoms in different individuals can be explained by the genetic variations that may underline their disorder, therefore the explanation has good explanatory power
  3. implications for treatment: treatments based on the biological causes have some success meaning that the theory has real world application
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6
Q

Limitations to the genetic explanation of OCD

A
  • twin studies: concordance rate isn’t 100%, must be other factors involved, explanation is oversimplified and reductionist - doesnt take into account other factors, like environment
  • diathesis-stress model is able to explain the late onset found in some cases and therefore the cause is an interaction with the environment (isn’t entirely genetic)
  • equal shared environment issue: twin studies assume that all twins share equal environments however MZ twins are more likely to share the exact same environment than DZ twins.
  • the complexity of so many genes involved (230+) means the usefulness is reduced in terms of predictive value
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7
Q

Limitations to neural explanation of OCD

A
  • direction of causation isn’t clear: can’t tell whether the neural differences have caused the OCD or the other way around or a 3rd factor caused both.
  • serotonin link could be due to the co-morbidity of the disorder with depression (disruption of serotonin system could be due to the depression alongside OCD and not affect OCD at all)
    HOWEVER - recent research has shown that antidepressants that treat depression but have no effect on levels of serotonin don’t have any effect on OCD, implying that serotonin is directly associated with OCD itself and not just the depression
  • effectiveness of SSRIs is only 50-80% indicating that there is likely to be another explanation alongside the neurotransmitter levels
  • treatments may help improve symptoms but don’t address the cause
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8
Q

Name one study that researched the effectiveness of drug therapy on OCD

A

Soomro reviewed 17 studies comparing SSRIs to placebos in the treatment of OCD and concluded that all studies showed significantly better results for the SSRIs than placebos. For SSRIs, symptoms were significantly reduced by 70%

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9
Q

Explain Beck’s cognitive explanation for depression

A
  • Beck proposed that depression is the result of maladaptive thinking processes (cognitions).
  • the world is seen negatively through negative schemas which dominate thinking and are triggered when individuals are in situations similar to those where the schemas were learned
  • negative schemas may have developed in childhood for example due to authority figures placing unrealistic demands on individuals. These schemas then continue into adulthood and produce a negative framework where people look at the world pessimistically.
  • negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain the triad
  • triad: the self, the world, the future
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10
Q

What are negative schemas and give one example?

A

Beliefs formed from past experiences that lead to expectations. E.g., self-blame schemas - makes the depressive feel responsible for all misfortunes

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11
Q

What are cognitive biases and give one example?

A

Faulty information processing that are fuelled by negative schemas (errors of thinking/errors of perception). e.g., focusing on negative aspects of a situation and ignoring any positives.

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12
Q

Name 1 study to support and contradict Beck’s cognitive explanation for depression

A

Support: Grazioli and Terry tested 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerabilities and found those who were more vulnerable were more likely to suffer from post-natal depression
Contradict: McIntosh and Fisher found no evidence for a clear separation of negative thoughts but instead a single one-dimensional negative perception of the self.

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13
Q

Explain Ellis’ cognitive explanation for depression

A
  • ABC model, good mental health is the result of rational thinking. Depression results from irrational thought where the individual lames external event for their unhappiness.
  • A (activating event) B (beliefs) C (consequences)
  • ABC model predicts that people who think more irrationally should respond to daily stressors differently than to people who think less irrationally.
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14
Q

Name 1 study to support Ellis’ cognitive explanation for depression

A

Zeigler and Leslie found that students who scored higher on overall irrational thinking reported a significantly higher frequency of daily stressors than those who scored lower on irrational thinking. This indicates support for the ABC model.

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15
Q

What are SSRIs/what do they aim to do for OCD?

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors - given to OCD sufferers as it blocks the reabsorption of serotonin at the synapses, inhibiting reuptake and therefore increases levels of serotonin
They aim to reduce the anxiety caused by the obsessions, which will reduce the need for compulsions to be carried out

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16
Q

Strengths of drug treatment for OCD

A
  • cheaper and quicker than many psychological treatments
  • non-disruptive to patients lives, don’t take much motivation
  • 50-80% effectiveness
  • relatively safe and not addictive so can be used in the long term
17
Q

Limitations of drug treatments for OCD

A
  • high relapse rate as body adapts to the usage (the more you have it, the more tolerable your body is to it)
  • takes between 4-12 weeks to take effect meaning patients often abandon their use because of this in combination with the side effects
  • address the symptoms of anxiety and not the cause therefore have to use other treatments alongside
  • if the origin of OCD is a genetic vulnerability together with an environmental trigger, a purely biological treatment may not be effective
18
Q

Outline Beck’s cognitive treatment for depression

A
  • CBT, cognitive behavioural therapy, aims to modify negative schemas by changing maladaptive thinking underlying it.
  • 4 phases:
    1. Increase confidence
    2. Challenge automatic negative thoughts
    3. Identify negative thoughts about the self, world and future
    4. Change key attitudes/beliefs
  • treats patient ‘as a scientist’, homework task to report in next session
19
Q

Outline Ellis’ cognitive treatment for depression?

A
  • REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy) aims to identity and challenge irrational thoughts
  • 3 stages:
    1. Identity and make patient aware of irrational thoughts
    2. Challenge the irrational beliefs through a process of confrontation and argument
    3. The irrational beliefs are replaced with rational ones
  • patient encouraged to practice positive and optimistic thinking
20
Q

Strengths of cognitive treatments for depression

A
  • after 36 weeks, 81% effectiveness of CBT
  • CBT occurs over relatively short time periods and can have long term effects as the techniques continue to be practiced outside sessions
  • most effective treatment for moderate and severe depression. Prevents mild depression turning into severe depression
  • very few side effects unlike drug therapy
21
Q

Limitations of cognitive treatment for depression

A
  • requires patient motivation, some people with depression can’t even get out of bed
  • CBT requires people to articulate their thoughts, so isn’t suitable for all patients (e.g. patients with disabilities)
  • client preference: some patients want symptoms to go ASAP so choose drug therapy
  • research has shown that over 53% of patients relapse after a year so should be repeated periodically
  • success may be due to therapist-client relationship, quality of relationship may determine success rather than technique used
  • possible overemphasis of cognition, ignores other factors like the environment they’re living in (abusive), can change their thoughts but not where they’re living
  • relies on patient self-reporting, unreliable and difficult to verify
  • addresses/ underlines thought processes but doesn’t say where they came from
22
Q

Outline deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality (3 marks)

A
  • abnormality is based on whether a behaviour is different from expectations and what is considered acceptable in a given society
  • based on the desirability of a behaviour
  • definition varies according to culture, generation, gender and situation
23
Q

Outline failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality (3 marks)

A
  • abnormality is judged as an inability to deal with the demands of every day living
  • behaviour causes personal distress and distress to others
  • based on an individual’s suffering
  • behaviour is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous
24
Q

Outline statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality (3 marks)

A
  • is a behaviour is unusual or rare then it’s classed as abnormal
  • based on quantitative information about the frequency of a behaviour in a population
  • if a characteristic is normally distributed then typically if it lies beyond 2 s.d of the mean then it would be classed as abnormal
25
Q

Outline deviation from mental health as a definition of abnormality (3 marks)

A
  • absence of signs of mental health used to judge abnormality
  • description of Jahoda’s criteria (accurate perception of reality, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, positive attitude towards self, autonomy/independence, environmental mastery
  • the more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are
26
Q

Evaluate deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality (5 marks)

A
  • allows for situational factors to be taken into account
  • subjectivity: based on social opinions
  • social attitudes and expectations change over time and between cultures
  • being different isn’t always a sign of abnormality (can just be eccentric)
  • for example, people with antisocial personality disorders are aggressive, impulsive and irresponsible which fits with this definition (people who are socially normal shouldn’t be aggressive and impulsive)
27
Q

Evaluate failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality (5 marks)

A
  • recognises the patient’s perspective
  • judging person as distressed or distressing relies on subjective assessment
  • not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress/failure to cope
  • e.g., psychopaths, like Ted Bundy, wouldn’t be considered abnormal from this definition
  • not all maladaptive behaviour is an indicator of mental illness
28
Q

Evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality (5 marks)

A
  • gives an objective and unbiased decision
  • not all abnormal behaviours are infrequent
  • not all infrequent behaviours are abnormal or undesirable
  • frequency can vary between cultures and over time
  • line between normal and abnormal is very fine
  • e.g., depression affects 20-30% of people, not statistically infrequent but still considered a disorder so this wouldn’t fit with this definition
29
Q

Evaluate deviation from mental health as a definition of abnormality (5 marks)

A
  • positive, holistic approach to diagnosis
  • criteria for mental health are too demanding/unrealistic
  • culture bias in some criteria e.g., value placed on independence/autonomy
  • can be used to identify ways in which treatment could be sought to improve mental health and to set goals
  • e.g., people hearing people doesn’t meet the criteria

Psychology (10 decks)

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