Research Methods

Question 1

Independent variable

Answer 1

This is the variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable. To provide a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all.

Question 2

Dependent variable

Answer 2

This is the variable that is being measured. The IV and the DV should be operationalised. Operationalisation is defining the variables in such a way as to make them measurable.

Question 3

Extraneous variables

Answer 3

These are any variables (other than the IV) that COULD affect the DV.

Question 4

Confounding variables

Answer 4

These are any variables (other than the IV) that HAVE affected the DV.

Question 5

Lab experiments

Answer 5

Laboratory experiments are carried out in a controlled environment, allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV. The researcher can then measure the change in the DV caused by their manipulation of the IV. Participants (people who take part in psychological research) are randomly allocated to a condition. This means neither the experimenter nor the participant decides which condition the participant is placed in, an unpredictable method (such as flipping a coin or drawing names out of a hat) is used to decide.

Question 6

Advantages of lab experiments

Answer 6

1. The high level of control possible in a laboratory means that it is easy to
   control for any EV and prevent them from becoming CV.
2. Because the researcher can manipulate the IV they can establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV.
3. A well-controlled laboratory experiment can be easily replicated (conducted again) by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained. If the findings are similar to the original study than the results are reliable (the study can be conducted repeatedly with the same results being found each time which means the results are not due to chance or confounding variables).

Question 7

Disadvantages of lab experiments

Answer 7

1. There is a strong chance of demand characteristics with a laboratory experiment, this is a type of EV where participants guess what the experiment is about and so alter their behaviour.
2. By establishing a high level of control over the IV and EV the experimental situation can lack mundane realism (the extent to which an experiment reflects real life). This means the study does not have ecological validity (the ability to generalise the findings of research to the real world).

Question 8

Field experiments

Answer 8

Field experiments are carried out in the real world. The IV is manipulated by
the researcher to see the effect on the DV.

Question 9

Advantages of field experiments

Answer 9

1. There is more mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory.
2. Because the researcher can manipulate the IV a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV can be established.
3. There is less chance of demand characteristics because in a field experiment the participants might not even be aware that they are taking part in research.

Question 10

Disadvantages of field experiments

Answer 10

1. There is much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV. This means the research is not valid
2. There is less control over the sample (this is who is taking part in the experiment).
3. Field experiments may be far more difficult to replicate.

Question 11

Natural experiments

Answer 11

A natural experiment the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV to see its effect on the DV.

Question 12

Advantages of natural experiments

Answer 12

1. There is a high level of mundane realism and ecological validity.
2. Very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV/sample in a laboratory experiment or field experiment.

Question 13

Disadvantages of natural experiments

Answer 13

1. Less control over EV.
2. Difficult to replicate.
3. Far more difficult to determine cause and effect

Question 14

Quasi experiments

Answer 14

Quasi-experiments contain a naturally occurring IV. However, in a quasi-
experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that
already exists (i.e. gender or age). The researcher examines the effect of this
variable on the DV.

Question 15

Quasi experiments advantages

Answer 15

High level of control. Extraneous variables effects are minimised

Replication is very likely due to strict controls

Question 16

Quasi experiment disadvantages

Answer 16

Lack of ecological validity as artificial experiments don’t effect real life

Demand characteristics may be a problem, potentially making the study invalid

Question 17

Observation

Answer 17

An observation is when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that is being studied.

Question 18

Non-participant observation

Answer 18

This is when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants.

Question 19

Participant observation

Answer 19

This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants.

Question 20

Covert observation

Answer 20

The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity, they may even give himself or herself a new identity. The group does not know that they are being observed.

Question 21

Overt observation

Answer 21

The researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed by a psychologist.

Question 22

Naturalistic observation

Answer 22

A researcher observes participants in their own environment and there is
no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable (IV).

Question 23

Advantages of naturalist observation

Answer 23

1. Participants are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effects. Observer effects occur when participants change their behaviour because they know they are being observed, so the results are not valid.
2. Naturalistic observations have high mundane realism and ecological validity.
3. Naturalistic observations are useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical.

Question 24

Disadvantages of naturalistic observation

Answer 24

1. It is impossible to have any control over extraneous variables (EV).
2. It is problematic to try to determine cause and effect.
3. There is a risk of observer bias.

Question 25

Controlled observation

Answer 25

A researcher observes participants in a controlled environment and this
allows for manipulation of the IV.

Question 26

Advantages of controlled observation

Answer 26

1. Cause and effect can be determined. 2. EV can be controlled for.

Question 27

Disadvantages of controlled observation

Answer 27

1. Lower mundane realism and ecological validity.
2. Observer effects could occur as participants usually know they are
   being observed (overt observation).
3. There is a risk of observer bias.

Question 28

Operationalised behavioural categories

Answer 28

Operationalised behavioural categories are the specific and observable behaviours to be recorded during an observation. These behavioural categories represent the more general construct under investigation.

Question 29

Behavioural categories…

Answer 29

 Allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings.
 Provide a clear focus for the researcher.
 Enable the proposal of a testable hypothesis.
 Allow for a more objective/scientific data recording.
 Provide data that is easier to quantify/analyse.
 Should result in greater reliability.

Question 30

Observer bias

Answer 30

Observer bias occurs when the observer knows the aims of the study, or
the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations.

Question 31

Inter-observer reliability

Answer 31

One way to avoid observer bias is using two observers who agree
beforehand on their interpretation of the behavioural categories. Each
observer then observes the participants at the same time, but records
their observations independently. Their recordings will then be
correlated using an appropriate statistical test to ascertain their level of
agreement. If the two observers agree then the study has inter-
observer reliability.

Question 32

Intra-observer reliability

Answer 32

Another way to overcome observer bias is intra-observer reliability. This is when an observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times.

Question 33

Time and event sampling

Answer 33

Event Sampling – Recording every time a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals. For example, counting how many times a person smiles.

Time Sampling – Recording all behaviours within a given time frame. For example, noting what a student is doing in a lesson every 30 seconds.

Question 34

Self-report

Answer 34

Self-report is when participants provide details of their own feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour to the researcher.

Question 35

Structure interview

Answer 35

Structured Interview = All participants are asked the same questions in the same order. This provides quantitative data, which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically.

Question 36

Unstructured interview

Answer 36

Unstructured Interview = An informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviewee. This provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think/feel.

Question 37

Semi-structured interview

Answer 37

Semi-structured Interview = This type of interview combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques (quantitative and qualitative data).

Question 38

Advantages of interviews

Answer 38

1. Complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview.
2. If participants misunderstand a question this can be clarified.

Question 39

Disadvantages of interviews

Answer 39

1. There is a risk of interviewer effects (when the interviewer may inadvertently affect respondent’s answers). This can be unintentional and may even be a result of the interviewer’s appearance, manner or gender.
2. There is also a risk of social desirability bias. This is when people lie to present themselves in a positive light (particularly when discussing issues that may be socially sensitive). This would mean the data lacks validity.
3. Training is needed for interviewers and the process can be time consuming and expensive.

Question 40

Closed questions

Answer 40

Closed questions require participants to choose from fixed responses (quantitative data). Researchers are able to collate and display the information collected easily. Closed questions make it easy to compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered – they can be sure there will be certain information because they have restricted the options to include that information.

Question 41

Open questions

Answer 41

Open questions allow the participant to answer in their own words (qualitative data). Open questions allow respondents to interpret the question as they wish to and develop their response with detail or depth – so there is lots of information received. Open questions allow the researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have predicted but which comes to light because of a response by an interviewee.

Question 42

Advantages of questionnaires

Answer 42

1. It is possible to collect a large amount of data relatively quickly and
   conveniently.
2. Questionnaires are easy to score/collate when the questions are closed.
3. Questionnaires are standardised so it is easy to replicate.

Question 43

Disadvantages of questionnaires

Answer 43

1. Participants may misunderstand the questions and the researcher is not there to clarify.
2. Questionnaires can have a low response rate.
3. Questionnaires can have a biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend the time on them. Certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires (e.g. people without busy careers) and so the sample may not be representative of the target population.

Question 44

Questionnaire construction (how should questions need written)

Answer 44

Need clarity (no ambiguity, double negatives and double-barrelled questions should be avoided)

Bias should be limited. Any bias in a question may lead the respondent to give a particular answer (e.g. leading questions). One problem is social desirability bias. Respondents may prefer to give answers that make them look more attractive, nicer, more generous etc. rather than being truthful. Esp if qs are socially sensitive

Questions to be written in a way that’s easy to analyse. Closed questions are easier to analyse than open questions but participants may be forced to select answers that do not reflect their real thoughts

Question 45

Writing good questionnaires overall

Answer 45

1. Filler Questions: Adding irrelevant questions distracts the respondent from the main purpose of the questionnaire and so reduces the risk of demand characteristics.
2. Sequence of Questions: It is best to start with easy questions and save those that might make people feel anxious or defensive for later.
3. Sampling Technique: The sampling technique used could cause the questionnaire to have a biased sample. Questionnaire studies often use stratified sampling.
4. Pilot Study: The questions could be tested on a small group of people. This means the questions can later be refined in response to any difficulties encountered

Question 46

Design of interviews

Answer 46

An interviewer could take written notes throughout the interview but this is likely to interfere with their listening skills. If the researcher does not write something down the interviewee may feel like what they have said is not valuable. Alternatively, interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded.

One of the strengths of conducting an interview over a questionnaire is that the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondent’s answers may increase the amount of information provided. Interviewers need to be aware of their non-verbal communication (e.g. do not sit with your arms crossed, frown etc.) and their listening skills (e.g. do not interrupt).

Question 47

Correlation

Answer 47

Correlation is a technique for analysing the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables, known in correlation as co-variables.

Question 48

Strength of correlation

Answer 48

The strength of a correlation (strong, medium or weak) is rated between -1 and 1.
 0 means that there is no correlation.
 -1 means that there is a strong negative correlation.
 1 means that there is a strong positive correlation.
The strength of the correlation is known as the correlation coefficient.

Question 49

correlation pictures

Answer 49

Question 50

Advantages of correlational analysis

Answer 50

1. This technique allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely.
2. Once a correlation has been conducted predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable.
3. This technique also allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons

Question 51

Disadvantages of correlational analysis

Answer 51

1. Correlational analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect; we cannot tell
   which variable influences the other.
2. Even if there is a correlation between two variables it may be the case that the variables are not actually related but that there is a third unknown variable which influences both.
3. Correlation can only measure liner relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships. This is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after that, the relationship becomes negative (or vice versa).

Question 52

Difference between correlation and experiment

Answer 52

An experiment tests the effect that an independent variable has upon a dependent variable but a correlation looks for a relationship between two co- variables.

This means that an experiment can predict cause and effect (causation) but a
correlation can only predict a relationship, as a third extraneous variable may be involved that it not known about.