Approaches Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
1
Q

Emergence of psychology as a science

A

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’ as he moved psychology away from its philosophical roots to controlled research. He set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany, in the 1870s. Wundt also founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology and published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish the subject as an independent branch of science.

Wundt developed a scientific method to study mental processes, such as the structure of sensation and perception. He called this method introspection, which is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience of a stimulus. An experience was analysed in terms of its components parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.

Introspection was used in highly controlled studies. The use of controlled environments enabled Wundt to establish general theories about mental processes. His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists. However, Wundt later identified higher mental processes (such as learning, language, emotions, etc.) that could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner.

Wundt’s work led to the development of the field of cultural psychology, based on general trends in behaviour of groups of people.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Emergence of psychology as a a science AO3 (3P,1N)

A

+ Wundt was the first to open a laboratory designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions facilitating accurate measurements and replication.

+ Wundt was the first psychologist to focus on understanding the psychological processes of perception etc. rather than philosophical or biological processes.

+ Wundt later recognised that higher mental processes were difficult to study using his procedures and this encouraged others to look for more appropriate methods and techniques, paving the way for approaches such as brain scanning techniques.

  • Many modern psychologists argue that early behaviourists (e.g. Pavlov) made a greater contribution to the development of psychology as a science than Wundt did. They produced reliable findings, which Wundt did not, with explanatory principles that were generalisable – much more in keeping with the scientific approach.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Introspection AO1

A

Introspection is a systematic analysis of our own conscious experiences of a stimuli. An experience is examined in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, feelings, images etc.

Wundt claimed that with sufficient training an individual’s conscious mental processes, such as perception, could be objectively reported by the individual as they occurred. For example, Wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object (such as a metronome) and encourage them to look inwards and reflect on the sensations, feelings and the images that came to mind. This information could then be used to gain insight into the mental processes involved in perception.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Introspection AO3 (2p,1n)

A

+ Focus on mental processes through introspection can be seen as the forerunner of the cognitive approach.

+ Introspection is still sometimes used in modern scientific psychological research (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003), and in areas such as therapy and studying emotional states. This demonstrates its value as one way mental processes can be investigated.

  • Studies using introspection may not be valid. Many psychologists would argue that several aspects of our mind are outside of our conscious awareness (e.g. research by Nisbett & Wilson, 1977) and so cannot be reported by an individual.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Behaviourist approach - classical conditioning key assumptions

A

 Concerned with observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured.
 All behaviour is learned from the environment and can be reduced to a stimulus-response association.
 There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and non-human animals. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Classical conditioning

A

One way in which behaviour can be learned is via classical conditioning, which is learning through association.

Pavlov (1927) was investigating the salivating reflex in dogs when he noticed that dogs would not only salivate when food was placed in their mouths, but also when certain stimuli appeared, such as their dog bowl or the person who usually fed them. This led Pavlov to explore how the dogs had learnt that these stimuli meant food was on the way. He decided to see if he could teach the dogs to salivate when he rang a bell.

  1. Before Conditioning - Food was an unconditioned stimulus that produced the reflex of salivating, which is an unconditioned response. The bell was a neutral stimulus that produced no conditioned response.
  2. During Conditioning – The unconditioned stimulus (food) was repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus (bell). Eventually the dog associated the bell with food.
  3. After Conditioning – The bell was a conditioned stimulus that produced salivating in the dogs as a conditioned response.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Operant conditioning is different to classical conditioning. Responses are reinforced in operant conditioning but not in classical conditioning. Classical conditioning explains the acquisition of a response (e.g. a phobia) while operant conditioning explains the maintenance of a response.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement is something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour (i.e. makes that behaviour more likely to happen). There are two types of reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement – Occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism. For example, praising a child for doing their homework.
Negative Reinforcement – Occurs when behaviour removes something aversive (unpleasant) and returns the organism to the pre-aversive state. For example, turning off the alarm clock allows a person to escape from the unpleasant noise.

Punishment occurs when a behaviour leads to an unpleasant consequence. This decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.

Positive Punishment – This is when something unpleasant is added to a person’s life that was not there before. For example, such as giving a student detention.
Negative Punishment – This is when something pleasant is removed from a person’s life. For example, confiscating a student’s mobile phone.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Skimmer 1953 study

A

Skinner conducted a study on rats in a device called the Skinner Box. The Skinner box was a cage which had speakers, lights, a lever, a door and a floor which could be electrified. One hungry rat at a time would be placed in the Skinner box and allowed to freely run round. The rat might accidentally press the lever and be rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the Skinner box (positive reinforcement). The rat would then continue to press the lever in order to receive a food pellet in the future, as the rat soon learned that pressing the lever led to a reward. The rat could also learn that by pressing the lever they could avoid something unpleasant, by pressing the lever the rat could avoid receiving an electric shock (via the electrified floor). This is an example of negative reinforcement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Behaviourist approach AO3 (3p, 2n)

A

+ The behaviourist approach enhanced the scientific status of Psychology by using strict scientific methods, being objective, and producing verifiable findings.
+ The behaviourist approach has developed laws and principles that have enabled psychologists to predict and control behaviour. However, it also raises ethical concerns because the approach could be used to control people against their wishes.
+ The behaviourist approach has led to several useful treatments such as systematic desensitisation (classical conditioning) and token economy (operant conditioning). However, focusing solely on behaviour neglects the whole person. Treatments using conditioning do not get to the root cause of a patient’s problem, and so it is likely that when the therapy has ended the patient will return to their original behaviour.

  • The behaviourist approach is environmentally reductionist because it focuses on a lower level of explanation than other approaches. Stimulus-response associations lack meaning when attempting to explain complex human behaviours, such as attachment. The behaviourist approach is also environmentally deterministic. According to behaviourism, human behaviour is entirely determined by the environment, there is no account taken of a person’s free will to decide how to behave.
  • The behaviourist approach has been criticised because it uses non-human animals. Critics claim this tells us little about human behaviour because humans have cognitive factors and emotional states that influence their behaviour.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Social learning theory

A

Behaviour is learned through experience, specifically through observation and imitation within a social context.

Modelling – In order for social learning to take place models must carry out the behaviour to be learnt. A live model could be a parent, teacher or peer. A symbolic model could be someone in the media

Imitation – A lot of the behaviour people acquire is learnt though copying (imitating) the behaviour that is modelled by others.

Identification – We are more likely to imitate the behaviour of a model who we admire or who is similar to us in some way (e.g. same age and gender). In order to identify with the model, observers must feel that they are similar enough to the model that if they performed the same behaviour, the consequence would be the same for them as it was for the model

Vicarious Reinforcement – Individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the reward and punishment they receive. People to not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn from them. People may learn behaviours, but not perform them because they have also learned that the behaviour is likely to be punished if displayed.

Mediational Processes – Cognitive factors occur between the stimulus (observing the behaviour) and the response (imitating the behaviour). First the observer must pay attention to the model (attend to their actions), secondly the observer must be capable of retention (remember the behaviour that has been modelled), thirdly the observer must be motivated to imitate the behaviour (because they want the same reward the model received, finally the observer must consider themselves to be physically and psychologically capable of reproducing the behaviour. People can learn a behaviour but still not reproduce it because they are not motivated to, or they are not capable of that behaviour.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Bandura 1961 SLT study

A

Bandura conducted a study involving 36 male and 36 female children aged 3-7 years of age. The children had to observe a model acting either aggressively or non aggressively with a bobo doll. Some of the children saw a same-sex model, others saw a different sex model. In the experimental conditions the model displayed aggressive acts towards the bobo doll such as striking it with a mallet and shouting “POW!”.

After the children observed these aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated. They were shown attractive toys but told they were not allowed to play with them. The children (one by one) were then taken to a room which had some toys including a bobo doll. The children were observed for 20 minutes.

The results found that the children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll, whereas the children who observed the non-aggressive model, showed no aggression to the bobo doll. 33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen and heard. However 0% of children in the non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression. Boys were more aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer (identification).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Social learning theory AO3 (1p, 4n)

A

+ Social learning theory recognises the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors (mediational processes) when examining how people learn new behaviours, unlike the behaviourist approach (classical and operant conditioning).

  • Social learning theory can be criticised because it does not take into account cause and effect. Studies have found that young people who have deviant attitudes seek out peers with similar attitudes, rather than becoming deviant because of their peers.
  • Mediational factors have to be inferred so we cannot measure the extent of their influence. SLT does not try to explain mediational processes, it leaves this to cognitive psychologists.
    • Social learning theory sees behaviour as environmentally determined and so ignores the role of biology in behaviour. However, Bandura (1961) found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in. Boys might be more aggressive because of the hormone testosterone which means it is biologically determined
  • Social learning theory is able to explain behaviours such as aggression, but not so able to explain the learning of abstract notions, e.g. fairness, justice etc. which cannot be observed directly
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Key assumptions of the cognitive approach

A

 Psychology should be the study of internal mental processes, e.g. memory, perception etc.
 The importance of the role of schema.
 It is appropriate to make inferences about cognitive processes
 The use of models of explanation – theoretical and computer models.
 Possibility of combining cognitive processes and biological structures
(cognitive neuroscience).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

The role of models

A

Making inferences means going beyond the immediate evidence to make
assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.

Theoretical models in cognitive psychology (such as the multi-store model of memory) are simplified representations based on current research evidence. Models are often pictorial in nature, represented by boxes and arrows that indicate cause and effect in mental processes. Models are often incomplete and are frequently updated. For example, the Working Memory Model was first proposed in 1974, but a fourth component was added in 2000.

Cognitive psychologists have also made use of computer models to explain mental processes. Using computers as an analogy, information is inputted through the senses, coded into memory and then combined with previously stored information. Computer models are often used to explain memory, long- term memory is like a hard-disk and RAM is like working memory. Like working memory, RAM, is cleared and reset when a task has been carried out.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Role of schema

A

Schema are mental representations of experience, knowledge and understanding. They help organise and interpret information in the brain. For example, schema for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in a different situation (e.g. a restaurant or a classroom) or in different roles (e.g. as a prison guard or a student). Schema are useful because they help us predict what will happen in our world based on our previous experiences. Schema also enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly. Finally, schema prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
However, schema can distort our interpretation of sensory information. Schema could also lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate memories. They can cause biased recall as we see what we expect. Negative or faulty sc

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

Cognitive and biological processes can be integrated, leading to a discipline known as cognitive neuroscience. This is the scientific study of the neurological structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry which are responsible for our thinking processes.

There are practical applications of cognitive neuroscience. Brain imaging techniques such as Position Emission Tomography (PET) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) have been used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain, for instance episodic memories are in the hippocampus, semantic memories are in the temporal lobe, and procedural memories are in the cerebellum. This has led to more effective treatments for memory disorders.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Cognitive approach AO3 (3p,2n)

A

+ The cognitive approach emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effects relationships can be identified. However, laboratory experiments can be criticised for lacking ecological validity.

+ Cognitive psychology has also been used to explain the development of negative schema which can aid our understanding of mental illnesses like depression

+ The cognitive approach has also had a vast influence on the development of therapies in Psychology. For instance cognitive behavioural therapy aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help treat depression.

  • The cognitive approach uses computer models. Phrases like storage and retrieval are taken directly from computing. However, there is an important difference between the sort of information processing that takes place within a computer programme and the processing that takes place in the human mind. Computers do not make mistakes, or ignore available information, or forget what has been stored on their hard drives. Humans, on the other hand, do all of these things.
  • The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality often seen in emotional behaviours.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Biological approach key assumptions

A

 Behaviour has evolved through evolutionary adaptation.
 The genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
 The biological examination of animals can provide useful information about
human behaviour.
 Biological structures and neurochemistry control and influence our reactions
to the environment.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Evolution and the influence of genetics

A

According to Charles Darwin, our behaviour has adapted and changed over time through natural selection. This is where profitable behaviours are selected in mates and therefore reproduced. Over time, advantageous behaviours will continue which will continually increase our ability to survive.

Heredity refers to the idea that characteristics are ‘passed on’ from one generation to the next through our genetics. These characteristics can be physical (e.g. height and hair colour) or psychological (e.g. intelligence and predisposition to mental illness). To examine the extent to which genes influence behaviour, work is often carried out on pairs of twins.

It is very rare, however, that the concordance rate for MZ twins is 100%. This suggests that, although there may be a genetic influence, some behaviours could be a mix of both genetics and environment:
 Genotype - refers to the genes an individual possesses i.e. an individual’s
genetic make-up.
 Phenotype - refers to the observable traits/characteristics shown by an
individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.

21
Q

Biological structures

A

The Nervous System is divided into:
- The Central Nervous System: This comprises of the brain and spinal cord
which act as the centre from which the individual is controlled e.g. through
the cognitive processing of the brain.

  • The Peripheral Nervous System: This comprises of the somatic nervous
    system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is therefore pivotal for movement. The autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and is involved in the fight or flight response.

The endocrine system maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands. The most important gland is the pituitary gland which is located in the brain. This is sometimes called the master gland because it instructs the other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary.

22
Q

Neurochemistry

A

Neurotransmitters – Neurons (cells in the nervous system) communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. Biological psychologists argue that neurotransmitter levels can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. low serotonin levels have been linked to depression).

Hormones - Hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands. Biological psychologists argue that hormone levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. high testosterone levels have been linked to aggressive behaviour).

23
Q

Biological approach AO3 (3p,2n)

A

+ The biological approach uses the scientific method, particularly the use of the experimental method, as its main source of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, thus adding to the reliability of the research.

+ The biological approach has practical applications. For example, knowledge about the neurochemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) has led to the development of drug treatments (SSRIs), which correct this imbalance.

+ If people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influence

  • The biological approach is biologically reductionist. Critics argue that we cannot fully understand behaviour without taking account of all the different factors which influence it. These include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors, all of which have a significant influence on behaviour.
  • Recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information could be used. It could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition to crime.
24
Q

Key assumptions of psychodynamic approach

A
  • The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind.
  • Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour.
  • Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are.
25
Q

3 levels to the mind

A

Freud believed that there are three levels to the mind. The conscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of. The preconscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they wanted to. However, Freud argued that the largest part of the mind is inaccessible. He referred to this as the unconscious mind.

26
Q

Role of the unconscious

A

Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms. The mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts, feelings and memories in the mind from reaching the conscious mind because they would cause the person anxiety if they did. During psychoanalysis, the therapist (known as the psychoanalyst) tries to access the unconscious mind of their patients using free association and dream interpretation

27
Q

Structure of personality

A

Personality has a tripartite structure (e.g. it made up of three part), the Id, the Ego and the Superego. Experience and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves.

28
Q

The Id

A

The Id – The id is formed between birth and 18 months of age. It is in the unconscious mind. The id focuses on the self (selfish), and is irrational and emotional. It deals with feelings and needs, and seeks pleasure. It operates on the pleasure principle.

29
Q

The Ego

A

The Ego – The ego is formed from around 18 months until 3 years of age. It is in the conscious mind. It is rational and obtains a balance between the id and the superego. It operates on the reality principle.

30
Q

The superego

A

The Superego – The superego is formed between 3 and 6 years of age. It is in the unconscious mind. The superego acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental and societal values. It operates on the morality principle.

31
Q

Defence mechanisms

A

Defence mechanisms help the ego manage the conflict between the id and the superego. They provide compromise solutions (usually unconscious) to deal with unresolvable conflict. They also provide a strategy to reduce anxiety, which weakens the ego’s influence.

Repression – Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. However, these repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour. For example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.

Denial – Denial is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation. For example, an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.

Displacement – Displacement occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g. anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object. For example, a student who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker

32
Q

Psychosexual stages

A

Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages. These are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido). At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.

Freud believed that parents played an important role in a child’s progression through the psychosexual stages. If the child as allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation could occur in which the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.

33
Q

Oedipus complex

A

During the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a hatred for their rival in love – their father. Fearing that their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father. In doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (his superego)

34
Q

Electra complex

A

During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father. They also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this. Over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby. In turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego).

35
Q

Psychodynamic approach AO3 (3p,2n)

A

+ Psychodynamic concepts such as defence mechanisms do have intuitive appeal;
most people appreciate the ideas of denial, repression and displacement.

+ The psychodynamic approach has practical applications. It has led to the development of psychoanalysis – a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. This laid the foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.

+ The case study of Little Hans supports the Oedipus complex proposed by Sigmund Freud. However, the Oedipus complex could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences (e.g. through dream analysis) where subjective interpretation is open to investigator bias. The psychodynamic approach lacks scientific rigour.

  • The key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability because they are unconscious processes and therefore difficult to test.
  • Concepts of the psychodynamic approach are based on small samples due to the reliance of the case study method. This poses problems of generalisability.
36
Q

Humanist approach key assumptions

A
  • Psychology should study the whole person given that everyone is unique.
  • People have free will to make their own decisions in life.
  • The scientific method is too objective because the methods employed fail to
    acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual.
37
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

A person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs are at the top. People are motivated to achieve progression through the levels, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore.

38
Q

Hierarchy of needs from 5-1 (bottom to top)

A

5) physiological needs (food, water, warmth, rest)
4) safety needs (security, safety)
3) belongingness and love needs (intimate relationships, friends)
2) esteem needs (prestige and feeling of accomplishment)
1) self-actualisation (achieving ones full potential, including creative activities)

39
Q

Self-actualisation

A

Self –actualisation occurs when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves.

Maslow found that most of those who attained self-actualisation shared certain characteristics. They tended to be creative, accepting of other people and had an accurate perception of the world around them. Maslow believed that such individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences. These are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions.

40
Q

Humanist approach (focus on the self)

A

Rogers (1951) claimed that people have two basic needs, positive regard from
other people and feelings of self-worth (i.e. valuing ourselves).

Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood as a result of the child’s interactions with parents. Further interactions with significant others in adulthood (friends, spouses etc.) also have an influence.

When there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to me) a state of congruence exists. However, if there is a difference between the perceived self and ideal self, the person experiences a state of incongruence. The closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self-worth.

It is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist; most people experience some degree of incongruence. However, most people see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self.

41
Q

Humanistic approach - conditions of worth

A

The positive regard given by other people may be unconditional (unconditional positive regard) when a person is accepted for who they are, or conditional (conditional positive regard).

When people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth. These are conditions which they believe have to be met if they are to be accepted by others. An individual will only experience a sense of self- acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance

42
Q

Humanistic approach - counselling psychology

A

Rogers (1959) claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people. He believed that, with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways and move towards being a more functioning person. Instead of acting in a directive way, humanistic psychologists, regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation.

Therapists provide unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance and understanding. They are therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth. These results in the client moving towards being more true to their self (i.e. able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than who someone else wants them to be).

43
Q

Humanistic approach AO3 (1p, 4n)

A

+ Humanists believe in free will. However, science believes that all behaviour is caused by something (i.e. it has been determined). Determinism in science allows for general laws and predictability of behaviour and so there is limited application of the humanistic approach.

  • Humanistic Psychology lacks scientific rigour; it proposes that we should study the whole person because each individual is unique however science relies on reductionism i.e. reducing behaviour into its simplest components
  • Humanists propose concepts such as self-actualisation where definitions lack operationalisation. There is no objective measure of whether someone has self- actualised leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims.
  • Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as personal growth, would be much more readily associated with individualist cultures in the Western world (e.g. the United States). Collectivist cultures (e.g. in China) which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology.
  • Some critics argue that the humanistic approach presents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. People are not as inherently good or growth orientated as this approach suggests, in fact this approach ignores peoples’ capacity for pessimism and self-destruction
44
Q

Free vs determinism

A

Biological - Biological determinism Behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors (e.g. genes, neurochemistry).

Behavourist - Environmental determinism Behaviour is controlled by stimulus- response association.

SLT - Soft determinism Behaviour is influenced by environmental forces but humans have some free will.

Cognitive - Soft determinism Behaviour can be controlled by schemas etc. but individuals choose what information they attend to.

Psychodynamic - Psychic determinism Behaviour is determined by unconscious instincts and drives.

Humanist - Free will. Humans control their own behaviour.

45
Q

Nature vs nurture

A

Biological - Nature
Behaviour is the result of innate biological factors (e.g. genes).

Behaviourist - Nurture
Humans are born as a ‘blank slate’ so all behaviour is learned.

SLT - Nurture
Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of models.

Cognitive - Nature & Nurture Behaviour is the product of information processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture)

Psychodynamic - Nature and nurture Behaviour is the product of innate drives (nature) as well as childhood experiences (nurture).

Humanist - Nurture
Behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self- actualisation.

46
Q

Reductionism vs Holism

A

Biological - Biological reductionism Behaviour is broken down into biological structures/proces ses.

Behaviourist - Environmental reductionism Behaviour is broken down into stimulus-response association.

SLT - Holistic
Takes into account both behavioural and cognitive factors in behaviour.

Cognitive - Holistic
But also accused of machine reductionism by comparing the human mind to a computer.

Psychodynamic - Holistic
Proposes that personality is the dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood experiences.

Humanist - Holistic
Focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience.

47
Q

Idiographic vs Nomothetic

A

Biological - Nomothetic
Creates universal laws, as humans share similar physiology.

Behaviourist - Nomothetic
Creates universal laws as people learn through either association or consequence.

SLT - Nomothetic
Attempts to establish general laws (e.g. vicarious reinforcement).

Cognitive - Nomothetic and idiographic Attempts to establish general laws (e.g. through theoretical models) but also utilises case studies (e.g. HM and KF).

Psychodynamic - Nomothetic & Idiographic Attempts to establish general laws (e.g. psychosexual stages) but also utilises case studies and considering unique childhood experiences.

Humanist - Idiographic
Focuses on the subjective human experience.

48
Q

Scientific

A

Biological - Scientific
Promotes
scientific methods e.g. brain scanning. Uses animal research.

Behaviourist - Scientific
Utilises scientific methods (e.g. laboratory experiments). Uses animal research

SLT - Mostly scientific Utilises scientific methods but also considers subjective mediational processes.

Cognitive - Mostly scientific Utilises scientific methods (e.g. laboratory research) but also researches concepts not directly observable (e.g. cognitive errors).

Psychodynamic - Not scientific
Examines concepts that cannot be empirically tested (e.g. repressed memories). Relies on subjective interpretation of case studies.

Humanist - Not scientific
Rejects scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence.

49
Q

Applications

A

Biological - Drug treatments (e.g. SSRIs for depression).

Behaviourist - Token economy systematic desensitisation and flooding.

SLT - Age rating on films and games.

Cognitive - Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (e.g. Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy and Anger Management).

Psychodynamic - Psychotherapy

Humanist - Counselling