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pyschology > research methods > Flashcards

research methods Flashcards

mainly definitions / mark scheme

1
Q

directional hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that states the kind of relationship or difference between two variables eg coffee will have an effect on reaction time on ppts

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2
Q

non-directional hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that predicts that there will be a difference / relationship but does not state the kind of difference eg coffee will change reaction time on ppts

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3
Q

laboratory experiment

A

an experiment conducted in a controlled situation

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4
Q

validity

A

testing or measuring what you set out to measure

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5
Q

advantages of an experiment

A
  • manipulation of IVS can indicate cause and effect relationships
  • increased control and measurement so higher validity
  • standardised procedures mean replication is possible, so higher reliability
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6
Q

disadvantage of an experiment

A
  • artificial conditions = unnatural behaviour/demand characteristics so lack both external and internal validity
  • results biased eg in sampling / experimental bias, reducing internal validity
  • cannot control all variables
  • ethical problems of deception
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7
Q

strength of lab experiment

A

high in internal validity as extraneous variables controlled, so can be confident that any observed change in DV is due to the IV

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8
Q

disadvantages of lab experiment

A

participants aware = demand characteristics, reducing ecological validity
- IV/DV may be operationalised and so doesn’t represent everyday experiences - so low in mundane realism
- ppts uncomfortable in unnatural environment

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9
Q

field experiment

A

an experiment conducted in a more natural environment, and participants are usually not aware that they are in an experiment
- IV is still manipulated so casual relationships between IV and DV still demonstrated

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10
Q

field experiment strengths

A
  • high in ecological validity since ppts unaware that they’re being studied so no demand characteristics
  • natural setting = ppts more relaxed
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11
Q

field experiment weaknesses

A
  • IV still controlled so may lack mundane realism
  • more difficult to control extraneous variables
  • major ethical issues - ppts unknown of being studied, so difficult to debrief them - raises ethical issues with manipulating and recording their behaviour
  • more expensive and time consuming
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12
Q

natural experiment

A

IV is not manipulated, instead it is naturally occurring but still a measure of what you expect to see

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13
Q

independent groups design

A

a ppt only does one experimental condition

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14
Q

repeated measured design

A

a ppt does both experimental conditions

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15
Q

matched pairs design

A

ppt matched on any variable of researchers choice eg iq, ethnicity, age, then randomly allocated to one of the two conditions

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16
Q

ABBA effect

A
  • two groups splitting sample
  • in group 1 each ppt does condition A (morning) then B (afternoon), in group two each ppt does B then A
  • counterbalances order effects
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17
Q

RMD strengths

A
  • same task used in both conditions so less time consuming and less money
  • does not need as many ppts as IGD
  • set variable to match ppts to
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18
Q

IGD strengths

A
  • not subject to order effects
  • set variable to match ppts to
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19
Q

IGD weaknesses

A
  • you need twice as many ppts as RMD to end up with the same amount of data
  • cannot control ppt variables
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20
Q

RMD weaknesses

A
  • order effects eg practice effect
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21
Q

MPD weaknesses

A

time consuming and difficult to match all ppt variables as you can only match on variables known to be relevant
- very difficult to match key variables

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22
Q

avoid weaknesses of IGD

A
  • make sure no one is more skilled in one variable over the other - ppts can be randomly allocated to distribute variables more evenly
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23
Q

avoid weaknesses of MPD

A

restrict number of variables to match to make things easier

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24
Q

RMD avoid weaknesses

A

counterbalancing/ABBA

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25
Q

random sampling

A

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

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26
Q

opportunity sample

A

selecting those from the population that are most easily available at the time of study eg walking by you on the street

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27
Q

stratified sample

A

identifying subgroups within a population eg gender/age, and obtaining ppts from each subgroup in proportion to their frequency in the population
ppts are randomly chosen

(division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata)

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28
Q

systematic sampling

A

sampling method where researchers select members of the population at a set/regular interval (every nth person)

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29
Q

volunteer sampling

A

obtaining of ppts relies solely on volunteers to make up sample by advertisement

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30
Q

random sample - strengths

A
  • unbiased as all members of population have an equal chance
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31
Q

random sample - weaknesses

A
  • find every person of a population and contacting them is time consuming
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32
Q

opportunity sample - strengths

A
  • finding convenient/suitable ppts takes a short time
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33
Q

opportunity sample - weaknesses

A
  • biased as ppts are drawn from a small part of the pop. rather than a general pop.
34
Q

stratified sampling - strengths

A
  • representative as a proportional selection of subgroups
35
Q

stratified sampling - weaknesses

A

time consuming to find sub groups as well as contact and randomly select ppts from them

36
Q

systematic sample - strengths

A

unbiased as an objective system is used for selection

37
Q

systematic sample - weaknesses

A

not fully unbiased unless you select a number using a random method and start with that person, then select every nth person after

38
Q

volunteer sample - strengths

A

representative as gives access to a variety of ppts

39
Q

volunteer sample - weaknesses

A
  • volunteer bias: volunteers have more time on their hands or need money unlike randomly selected ppts, so may be more highly motivated in the experiment
40
Q

structured interview

A
  • open questions for qualitative data interviews
  • pre-determined questions
  • conducted in real time with no deviation from structured questions
41
Q

unstructured interview

A
  • pre-determined questions, but interviewer develops new questions based on the answers given by the interviewee
42
Q

questionnaire strengths

A
  • researcher can collect data from a large sample of people as questionnaires can be distributed to large numbers cheaply and quickly
  • respondents may be more willing to give personal information as not face to face
  • can be repeated as questions are standardised
43
Q

questionnaire weakness

A

only apply to people who can read, write and have the time to complete them. researches need to be careful of design, distribution and bias

44
Q

structured interview strengths

A
  • can easily be repeated as questions are standardised so answers from different people can be compared
  • answers are more predictable, so easier to analyse answers than in an unstructured interview
45
Q

structured interview weaknesses

A
  • comparability may be a problem as the same interviewer could behave differently in different occasions or different interviewers behave differently
  • interviewer bias - interviewers expectations may influence answers interviewee gives - you can avoid this by having skilled interviewers
46
Q

unstructured interview strengths

A
  • more detailed info obtained than in structured interview as interviewer tailors further questions building on a specific response
47
Q

unstructured interview weaknesses

A
  • due to development of new questions on the spot, this requires more skilled interviewers so more expensive to produce
  • in-depth questions more likely to lack objectivity due to their instantaneous nature with no time for interviewer to reflect on what to say - may cause unnecessary detail and harder to analyse (rich qualitative data)
48
Q

social desirability bias

A

people answering questions in such a way to present themselves in better light

49
Q

interviewer bias

A

effect of an interviewers expectations communicated unconsciously on a respondents behaviour

50
Q

pilot study

A
  • a small trial run prior its actual study
  • to find out if certain aspects of the design do or don’t work
  • to see what needs to be adjusted without wasting time and money on a full scale study
  • this improves validity as well as making a behaviour checklist
51
Q

participant observation

A

the researcher takes part.

52
Q

non-ppt observation

A

researcher just watches the ppts, does not take part

53
Q

covert

A

one-way mirror is used to prevent ppts being aware that they are being watched, researcher can also hide

54
Q

overt

A

ppts are aware that they are being watched

55
Q

time sampling

A

recording behaviours for short time intervals

56
Q

event sampling

A

all occurrences of behaviour are recorded constantly - decision only affected by how busy the situation is. if less busy, time sampling is easier

57
Q

reliability

A

how consistent or accurate the findings of the study are

58
Q

peer review

A

scientific work is judged prior application by others who are experts in the same field to ensure any research conducted is of high quality

59
Q

having inter-rater reliability

A

two or more observers must be in agreement with their observations at 0.8 or greater

60
Q

components of peer review: parliamentary office and science and technology (2002)

A
  • allocation of research and funding
  • publication of research in academic journals and books
  • assessing the research rating of university departments
61
Q

allocation of research and funding (PR)

A

research paid for by gov/charitable bodies - budget - 5.8 bil. so stuff like medical research council can decide which research is worth spending on, so require reviews - spending is done responsibly

62
Q

publication of research in academic journals and books (PR)

A

peer review used in scientific academic journals as a means of preventing incorrect or faculty data entering the public domain

63
Q

assessing the research rating of university departments (PR)

A

all university science departments’ research is assessed in terms of quality (by “research excellence framework”)
- future funding for the department depends on good ratings from the peer review

64
Q

peer review evaluation:

A
  • finding an expert to review isn’t always possible - this may lead to poor research being passed (smith 1999)
  • reviews can be biased towards prestigious researchers
  • publication bias - journals publishing positive results to increase standing of their journal due to positive implication - leads to a misperception of the true facts eg Ritchie et al (2012) submitted a rep of a study on paranormal phenoma and found the study was not even considered for peer review
  • cannot ensure that all data we are exposed to is valid - results will always remain in the public even after being assessed, so rather be careful of what is put out there
65
Q

meta-analysis

A

when a researcher combines results from many different studies leading to one conclusion

66
Q

advantage of meta-analysis

A
  • more generalisability as a larger amount of data is studied
  • lots of evidence
67
Q

disadvantage of meta-analysis

A
  • publication bias: intentionally leaves out negative results and does not publish all data from relevant studies, meaning a false representation is given of what the researcher was investigating - lowers validity
68
Q

nominal data

A
  • data in the form of categories
69
Q

ordinal data

A
  • data that is represented in ranking form eg 1= hating maths and 10= loving maths
  • lacks precision as it is based on the subjective opinion of people
70
Q

interval data

A
  • data that is based on numerical scales - based on objective measures
71
Q

strengths and weaknesses of primary data

A
  • targets the exact info of which the researcher needs so fits aims and objects
  • it requires time and effort
  • can be expensive
72
Q

strengths and weaknesses of secondary data (collected by someone else other than researcher but used for investigation)

A
  • data is accessed so requires minimal effort to collect
  • data could be outdated or incomplete
  • unreliable - researcher not there when study was conducted so likely to be unsure of validity of results
73
Q

strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data

A
  • richness and depth of detail
  • allows ppts to further develop opinions - external validity
  • meaningful insight
  • difficult to analyse
  • difficult to make comparisons
  • researcher bias as conclusions rely on subjective interpretations of researcher (interpretative bias)
74
Q

strengths and weaknesses of quantitive data

A
  • can be analysed statistically so converted into graphs/charts
  • easy comparisons
  • lack of depth in detail
  • no meaningful insight into ppts views
  • ppts don’t develop their opinions so results are low external validity
75
Q

S+W of questionnaires

A
  • cost effective
  • large amounts of data quickly
  • researcher not needed to be present
  • can analyse
  • difficult to know whether target population was answered eg if online
  • take long to design
  • ppt bias eg age. time, gender
  • response bias instead of putting in effort
76
Q

dealing with ethical issue of informed consent

A
  • prior general consent: ppts given to take part in many studies whereby one of them involves deception, so consenting to getting deceived
  • presumptive consent: when a researcher gathers opinions from a group like the ppts but does that inform actual ppts so demand characteristics eliminated
  • retrospective: researcher asks for consent after participating in the study
77
Q

dealing with deception

A
  • debriefing: all ppts debriefed after the study - can be written or verbal. during it, true nature of study must be said and ppts should be told what their study will be used to. after, ppts have the right to choose to withhold or withdraw their data
78
Q

dealing with protection from harm

A
  • researcher could provide counselling if ppts subject to any stress or pyschological harm
  • cost-benefit analysis should be done before study - ethics committee weigh pros and cons to determine whether study is ethical
79
Q

dealing with privacy and confidentiality

A
  • anonymity can be maintained - so not recording an personal details of ppts so data isn’t traced back to them - could refer to ppts with numbers or initials instead when writing up investigation
  • ppt should be reminded of briefing and debriefing of investigation that their data will be protected
80
Q

nomothetic approach

A

where general laws and principles on human behaviour are made - done using a scientific method reducing objective data which is quantifiable, very often using large samples

81
Q

research AO3 - what to remember when writing A03 on research

A
  • reliability - consistency
  • ethics
  • determinism vs free will
  • reductionist / hollistic
  • nomothetic (does it agree with science?)
82
Q

what ethics to use during evaluation

A
  • informed consent
  • protection from harm
  • deception
  • privacy (human rights) and confidentiality

pyschology (7 decks)

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