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OCR Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

Samples ✔, self-report ✔, observation ✔, experiments ✔, correlation ✔, data ✔, report writing ✔

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1
Q

What is an opportunity sample?

A

A sample produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.

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2
Q

What is a positive of using an opportunity sample?

A

Quick, takes less time due to using closet people available.

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3
Q

What is a negative of using an opportunity sample?

A

Biased, the sample is drawn from a small part of the target population.

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4
Q

What is a random sample?

A

A sample produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

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5
Q

What is a positive of using a random sample?

A

Unbiased, participants picked at random with an equal chance of being picked.

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6
Q

What is a negative of using a random sample?

A

Takes more time and effort, need to obtain a list of members of your target population, identify the sample and then contact all members of the sample.

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7
Q

What is a self-selected sample?

A

A sample produced by asking for volunteers.

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8
Q

What is a positive of using a self-selected sample?

A

Quick.
Participants are less likely to drop out because they volunteered.

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9
Q

What is a negative of using a self-selected sample?

A

Biased, volunteer participants have more time on their hands and are more likely to be highly motivated.

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10
Q

What is a snowball sample?

A

A sample that relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants.

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11
Q

What is a positive of a snowball sample?

A

Able to locate groups of people who are difficult to access.

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12
Q

What is a negative of a snowball sample?

A

Not a good cross-section of the target population due to them being friends of friends.

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13
Q

What is a debrief?

A

A post-research interview designed to inform participants about the true nature of a study.

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14
Q

Who are the ethics committee?

A

A group of people within a research institution who approve a study before it begins.

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15
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Asking a group of people similar to the participants if they would consent to an experiment. A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception.

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16
Q

When does deception occur?

A

When a participant is not told the true research aims of a study and/or not told what they will be required to do.

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17
Q

What is anonymity and confidentiality?

A

A participant’s right to have personal information protected through withholding their name or keeping information safe.

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18
Q

When is informed consent given?

A

When participants are given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of a study and their role in it.

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19
Q

What is privacy?

A

A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves.

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20
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

Participants should be told that they can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable.

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21
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

participants should not experience negative physical effects/ psychological effects when partaking in a study.

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22
Q

What is the definition of self-report?

A

Any data collection method that involves asking people to report their thoughts, feelings or behaviours.

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23
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

Predetermined questions where respondents record their own answers.

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24
Q

What is a closed question?

A

A question that has a fixed number of possible answers, provides quantitative data.

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25
Q

What is an open question?

A

A question that invites respondents to provide their own answers, provides qualitative data.

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26
Q

What is a rating scale?

A

A question where respondents are asked to give an assessment of their views using a scale, produces quantitative data.

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27
Q

Give two examples of rating scales.

A

Likert and Semantic differential rating scales.

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28
Q

What is an interview?

A

Questions that are delivered in real-time.

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29
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Predetermined questions delivered by an interviewer who does not probe beyond the answers received but may answer questions.

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30
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

Some questions are predetermined but also new questions are developed as the interview proceeds.

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31
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

Where no questions are decided in advance.

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32
Q

What is a positive of structure interviews?

A

Can be easily repeated and easier to analyse due to answers being more predictable.

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33
Q

What is a negative of structure interviews?

A

Interviewer’s expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives (researcher/interviewer bias).

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34
Q

What is a positive of semi-structured/unstructured interviews?

A

More detailed information obtained and can gain access to information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions.

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35
Q

What is a negative of semi-structured/unstructured interviews?

A

More affected by interviewer bias due to the interviewer developing questions on the spot and so may inadvertently ask leading questions.

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36
Q

Why are questionnaires better than interviews?

A

Can be given to lots of people and so larger amounts of data can be collected. People may feel more willing to reveal confidential information as the presence of an interviewer may make them feel evaluated.

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37
Q

Why are interviews better than questionnaires?

A

People may reveal more information as a skilled interviewer can encourage more thoughtful response.

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38
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

Self-report

A

The consistency between two different interviewers.

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39
Q

What is external reliability?

Self-report

A

A measure of whether something varies from one time to another.

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40
Q

What is internal reliability?

Self-report

A

A measure of whether a questionnaire is consistent within itself.

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41
Q

What is extenal validity?

Self-report

A

Concerns the extent to which the results from a questionnaire or interview can be generalised beyond the particular study.

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42
Q

What is internal validity?

Self-report

A

Concerns whether a test (questionnaire) does assess what it intended to assess.

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43
Q

How can you evaluate inter-rater reliability?

A

Using more than one interviewer to collect data for a research study

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44
Q

How can you evaluate external reliability?

A

Test-retest, the same psychological test is given to the same participants on two occasions to see if the same result is obtained.

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45
Q

How can you evaluate internal reliability?

A

Split-half method, test items are split into two halves and the scored on both halves compared. Scores should be similar if the test is reliable.

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46
Q

What is researcher bias?

A

An researcher has expectations and beliefs which may be unconsciously communicated to participants through tone of voice or phrasing of a question e.g.

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47
Q

What is face validity?

A

Concerns whether the items on a test look like they are assessing what the researcher intended to assess.

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48
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Whether a test assess the underlying concept(s) or construct(s)

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49
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

When a test is compared to a previously validated test on the same topic and whether the new measure produces a similar outcome to the older one.

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50
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

The extent test scores can predict future behaviour or attitude.

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51
Q

What is a strength of using observation?

A

What people say they do is often different from what they actually do, observations give a different take on behaviour than other research methods.

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52
Q

What is a weakness of using observation?

A

Risk of observer bias and observations cannot provide information about what people think or feel.

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53
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

Objective methods to separate continuous stream of action into components.

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54
Q

What is a strength of using behavioural categories?

A

Enables systematic observations to be made so important information is not overlooked.

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55
Q

What is a weakness of using behavioural categories?

A

Categories may not cover all possibilities and poorly designed coding frames may reduce reliability/ validity

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56
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Drawing up a list of behavioural categories and counting each time a behaviour occurs in a time period.

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57
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording behaviours at regular intervals, or taking a sample at different times of the day or month.

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58
Q

What is a strength of time/event sampling?

A

Makes the task of observing behaviour more manageable because you avoid recording everything.

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59
Q

What is a weakness of time/event sampling?

A

Observers may miss some observations if everything occurs at once, reducing validity.
Observations made may not be representative.

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60
Q

What is a strength of event sampling?

A

Using it is useful when tracking behaviour that only occurs occasionally.

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61
Q

What is a strength of time sampling?

A

Allows for tracking of time-related changes in behaviour.

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62
Q

What is a weakness of time sampling?

A

May decrease validity as some behaviours are inevitably missed since they occur outside of the observation interval.

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63
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Where some variables are changed by the researchers. May contain unstructured techniques.

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64
Q

What is a strength of a controlled observation?

A

Allows focus on particular aspects of behaviour.

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65
Q

What is a weakness of controlled observations?

A

Environment may feel unnatural, so the behaviour may be unnatural and hence the validity is lower.

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66
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Where everything is left as usual. Environment unstructured but may use structured techniques.

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67
Q

What is a strength of a naturalistic observation?

A

High in ecological validity.

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68
Q

What is a weakness of naturalistic observations?

A

Little control of variables and participants know their being watched (increase in risk of demand characteristics).

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69
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

A system is used to restrict and organise the collection of information.

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70
Q

What is a strength of structured observations?

A

Improves inter-rater reliability because observations can be more consistent.

71
Q

What is a weakness of structured observations?

A

Higher risk of observer bias.

72
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system.

73
Q

What is a strength of an unstructured observation?

A

Useful when behaviour studied is unpredictable and useful for pilot studies.

74
Q

What is a weakness of an unstructured observation?

A

Behaviours recorded are often the most eye-catching but may not be the most relevant or important.

75
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

Observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed.

76
Q

What is a strength of non-participant observation?

A

Increased objectivity

77
Q

What is a weakness of non-participant observation?

A

Observer may misinterpret the communications within the group because their an outsider.

78
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Observer is a participant on the behaviour being observed.

79
Q

What is a strength of participant observation?

A

Likely to provide special insight from the ‘inside’.
Able to monitor and record behaviour in closer detail.

80
Q

What is a weakness of participant observation?

A

Objectivity reduced.
More difficult to record an monitor behaviour unobtrusively if the observer is part of the observed group.

81
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

Observations made without a participants’ knowledge.

82
Q

What is a strength of covert observations?

A

Participants behave more naturally.

83
Q

What is a weakness of covert observations?

A

Raises ethical issues, deception and privacy.

84
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Participants are aware of being observed.

85
Q

What is a strength of overt observations?

A

Avoids lack of informed consent.

86
Q

What is a weakness of overt observations?

A

Participants may alter their behaviour- observer effect.

87
Q

What is the difference between validity and reliability?

A

Reliability is consistency whilst validity is accuracy, the ‘trueness’ of the data collected.

88
Q

What is an experiment?

A

A research method which demonstrates casual relationships. All experiments have an IV and DV.

89
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

A factor that is directly manipulated by the experimenter in order to observe the effect of this variation on the DV.

90
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

Measured by the experimenter to assess the effects of the IV.

91
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A

A statement about the relationship between variables, and should include both levels of the IV.

92
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

A statement of no difference.

93
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

Where each participant takes part in every condition under test.

94
Q

What is a strength of using a repeated measures design?

A

Good control of participant variables.
Fewer participants needed.

95
Q

What is a weakness of using repeated measures design?

A

Order effects are produced, e.g. participants guessing the aim of the experiment.

96
Q

What is independent measures design?

A

Participants are allocated to two (or more) experimental groups representing different levels of the IV

97
Q

What is a strength of using independent measures design?

A

Avoids order effects such as participants guessing the aim of the experiment.

98
Q

What is a weakness of using independent measures design?

A

No control of participant variables.
Needs more participants.

99
Q

What is matched participants design?

A

Participants who are similar on key variables are paired. One member of the pair is placed in group A and the other group B.

100
Q

What is a strength of using matched participants design?

A

Acts as a control for participant variables.
Avoids order effects.

101
Q

What is a weakness of using matched participants design?

A

Very time consuming and may not control all participant variables.

102
Q

What can you do to control order effects?

A

Counterbalancing

103
Q

What can you do to control participant variables?

A

Random allocation

104
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Cues in an experimental situation that communicate to participants what is expected of them and may then unconsciously affect a participant’s behaviour.

105
Q

How can you deal with demand characteristics?

A

Using an independent measures design.

106
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Any variable other than the IV that might potentially affect the dependent variable and thereby confound the results.

107
Q

How can you deal with extraneous variables?

A

Random allocation of participants.

108
Q

What are two examples of extraneous variables?

A

Participant and situational variables.

109
Q

What is researcher bias?

A

A researcher’s expectations or beliefs may encourage certain behaviours in participants. the result is that the researcher’s expectations are fulfilled.

110
Q

How can you deal with researcher bias?

A

The person who designs a study should not be the person who conducts it and therefore expectations cannot be communicated to participants.

111
Q

What is researcher effect?

A

Anything that the researcher does that has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study, other than what was intended.

112
Q

How can you deal with researcher effect?

A

Peer review.

113
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Concerns the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the particular setting in which it is demonstrated to other settings.

114
Q

How can you improve ecological validity?

A

Conducting research in everyday settings

115
Q

What is population validity?

A

Concerns the extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to other groups of people besides those who took part in the study.

116
Q

How can you improve population validity?

A

Using a wider target population and not using an opportunity sample.

117
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

Experiment conducted in a very controlled environment.

118
Q

What is a strength of using a laboratory experiment?

A

High level of control over extraneous variables.
Can be easily replicated.

119
Q

What is a weakness of using a laboratory experiment?

A

Artificial setting meaning participants won’t act naturally.
Higher risk of demand characteristics and researcher bias/effect.
Participants may be aware their being studied.

120
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment conducted in more everyday surroundings than a laboratory.

121
Q

What is a strength of using a field experiment?

A

Higher ecological validity.
Avoids demand characteristics.

122
Q

What is weakness of using a field experiment?

A

Less control of extraneous variables.
More time consuming and expensive.

123
Q

What is a quasi-experiment?

A

Where the experimenter does not manipulate the IV.

124
Q

What is a strength of using a quasi-experiment?

A

Allows research where the IV can’t be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons.

125
Q

What is a weakness of using a quasi-experiment?

A

Cannot demonstrate causal relationship as the IV is not directly manipulated.

126
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Used to assess the degree to which two co-variables are related.

127
Q

What is a strength of using correlational analysis?

A

Can look at relationships between continuous variables.
Can rule out casual relationships or have reason to investigate further.

128
Q

What is a weakness of using correlation analysis?

A

Cannot show a cause-and-effect relationship.
May be intervening variables not accounted for.
method used to measure the co-variables may lack reliability or validity.

129
Q

How do you work out the mean?

A

Add up all the numbers and divide by the number of numbers.

130
Q

How do you work out the median?

A

Place all values in order from smallest to largest and select the middle value.

131
Q

How do you work out the mode?

A

Identify the group(s) that occur the most.

132
Q

How do you work out the range?

A

Subtract the lowest number form the highest number.

133
Q

How do you work out the variance?

A

Subtract each number from the mean, ignoring plus or minus values. The resultant differences are added up and a mean value is calculated.

134
Q

How do you work out standard deviation?

A

The square root of the variance.

135
Q

What is strength of calculating a mean?

A

A ‘sensitive’ measure as it reflects the values of all the data in the final calculation.

136
Q

What is weakness of calculating a mean?

A

Can’t be used with nominal data.
Can be unrepresentative if there are extreme values.

137
Q

What is strength of calculating a median?

A

Not affected by extreme scores.

138
Q

What is weakness of calculating a median?

A

Not as ‘sensitive’ as the mean because not all values are reflected in the median.

139
Q

What is a strength of calculating a mode?

A

Useful when data is in categories.

140
Q

What is weakness of calculating a mode?

A

Not a useful way of describing data when there are several modes.

141
Q

What is a strength of calculating a range?

A

Easy to calculate.

142
Q

What is a weakness of calculating a range?

A

Affected by extreme values.
Fails to take account of the distribution of the numbers.

143
Q

What is a strength of calculating a variance and standard deviation?

A

Precise measure of dispersion because all the exact values are taken into account.
Not difficult to calculate if you have a calculator.

144
Q

What is a weakness of calculating a variance and standard deviation?

A

May hide some of the characteristics of the data set.

145
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data in numbers

146
Q

What is strength of using quantitative data?

A

Easier to analyse (use descriptive statistics).
Easier to draw conclusions.

147
Q

What is a weakness of using quantitative data?

A

Oversimplifies human experience.

148
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data in words or pictures.

149
Q

What is a strength of using qualitative data?

A

Represents the complexities of human behaviour.
Provides rich details of how people think and behave.

150
Q

What is weakness of using qualitative data?

A

More difficult to detect patterns and draw conclusions.

151
Q

What is primary data?

A

Data collected by a researcher specifically for the study.

152
Q

What is a strength of using primary data?

A

The data collection can be designed to fit the aim and hypothesis of the study.

153
Q

What is a weakness of using primary data?

A

A very lengthy and expensive process.

154
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Information that was collected for a purpose other than the current study.

155
Q

What is a strength of using secondary data?

A

Simpler and cheaper to access someone else’s data.
Data may have been subjected to statistical testing and thus is know whether it is significant.

156
Q

What is a weakness of using secondary data?

A

Data may not fit the needs of the study.

157
Q

What is a frequency table?

A

A table displaying a record of how often an event occurs.

158
Q

What is a bar chart?

A

A chart where each bar represents the frequency of each item and is best suited for data that has no order (categorical or nominal).

159
Q

What is a histogram?

A

Used for continuous data, where the area of each bar is proportional to the frequencies.

160
Q

What is a line graph?

A

Used for continuous data, where there is a dot on top of each bar which are joined by lines.

161
Q

What is a pie chart?

A

A way to represent frequency data where each slice of the ‘pie’ represents the proportion of the total.

162
Q

What is a scatter diagram?

A

A graph to display correlation data.

163
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Data in separate categories.

164
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Data is ordered.

165
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data measured by public units of measurements,.

166
Q

When do you use a parametric inferential test?

A

When the data is interval, drawn from a population with a normal distribution and from groups with similar variances.

167
Q

What is the observed value?

A

The number produced after applying an inferential test formula.

168
Q

What is probability?

A

A measure of the likelihood that an event may occur.

169
Q

What is an abstract?

A

A summary of the study covering the aims, hypothesis, method, results and conclusions. Around 150-200 words.

170
Q

What is an introduction?

A

Outlines what a researcher intends to investigate. Reviews previous research providing a background to the study to be conducted.

171
Q

What is included in the method section in a report of a study?

A

Design, sample, materials/apparatus and procedure.

172
Q

What is a discussion?

A

A summary of the results.
A consideration of the relationship to previous research.
Comments on possible methodological problems and suggested improvements.
Implications and applications.
Suggestions for future research.

173
Q

What is the appendices?

A

Contains examples of materials, raw data and calculations.

OCR Psychology (6 decks)

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