research methods Flashcards
sampling techniques
volunteer
opportunity
systematic
stratified
random
experimental designs
independent groups
repeated measures
matched pairs
the difference between a type of experiment and an experimental design?
A type of experiment is the variable arrangement used – laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
An experimental design is how participants are allocated to the conditions within the study.
What are the major extraneous variables associated with repeated measures designs?
Order effects
Use of the same materials
What is the major extraneous variable with an independent groups design?
Participant variables/extraneous variables (list individual differences)
lab study
independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and the environment is carefully controlled.
field study
independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and the environment is natural.
natural experiment
the independent variable is naturally-occurring within the environment (not or can’t be manipulated by the researcher)
quasi
the independent variable is a naturally-occurring difference between participants (can’t be manipulated by the researcher
Name the six types of observation
Naturalistic
Controlled
Overt
Covert
Participant
Non-participant
time sample
A target individual or group is established and then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every 5 minutes.
event sampling
A target behaviour is established and then the researcher records every time this behaviour occurs.
measures of central tendency
These tell us about the central (middle) values for a set of data. They are ‘averages’ i.e. ways of calculating a typical values or a set of data. They include the mean, median and mode.
measures of dispersion
These tell us how dispersed or spread out the data items are. They include the range and standard deviation.
mean
Interval data
median
Ordinal data
mode
Nominal data
range
Ordinal data
standard deviation
Interval data
ethical guidelines
Informed consent
Deception
Right to withdraw
Protection of participants
Privacy
Confidentiality
The sections of a psychological report
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
reliability
is a measure of consistency. It refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used
validity
Validity is the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure.
Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to manipulation of the independent variable and not any other factor.
External validity refers to how well you can generalise the results from research participants (apply the findings of a study) to people, places and times outside of the study.
Inferential statistics
involves tests which tell us whether a result is “significant”
The sign test
Is a test for Repeated Measures (or counterbalanced RM) designs that collected Nominal data
Before we start, we need to know whether the hypothesis was directional or non-directional. We use different criteria for each:
Directional: One Tailed Test
Non-directional: Two Tailed Test
Challenge: write an operationalised directional hypothesis for the study.
systematic review
Searches for studies that have similar aims/hypotheses
meta analysis
Analyses the data of not just their study, but other studies that have similar aims/hypotheses
Produces an effect size in % - measures the strength of the relationship between the different studies, the larger the effect size the stronger the relationship
longitudinal study
Conducted over a long period of time, makes comparisons between the same individual at different ages
cross sectional study
Compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time
role play study
Individuals are required to take on certain role and then their behaviour is observed as if it were real life
cross cultural study
Compares behaviours in different cultures
nominal data
data in separate categories
Eg. grouping people according to their favourite football team
ordinal
data is ordered
Eg. asking people to rank their favourite football teams from best to worst
interval
the data measured uses units of equal intervals
Eg. GCSE grades
ratio
there is a true zero point, as there is in most measures of physical quantities
Eg. cm, seconds
5 ways of displaying data
Table
Bar chart
Line graph
Scattergram
Histogram
bar chart
singular groups
histogram
range of values
normal distribution
A normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean - bell shaped curve
The symmetry means the mean, median and mode are all the same
Many human characteristics are normally distributed eg. height and IQ
Positive skewed distribution
Cluster of scores at the lower end of data set - curve has a tail to the right
Mode is less than the median, which are both less than the mean
Examples include income and no. of children in a family
Negative skewed distribution
Cluster of scores at the higher end of the data set - curve has a tail to the left
Mode is more than the median, which are both more than the mean
An example includes age at retirement
economic psychlogy
Economic Psychology involves seeking a better understanding of people’s behaviour in their economic lives. The field is primarily concerned with the rationality of decisions relating to economics.
Irrational thinking can occur due to:
Availability Heuristic
The framing effect
Availability Heuristic
The more available an option is, the more likely we are to select it.
For example, people often overestimate the likelihood of being in a plane crash because there is lots of information available about plane crashes when we make a probability judgement about the likelihood of a crash occurring.
framing effect
People’s decisions differ depending on whether a choice is presented as a gain or a loss.
Tversky and Kahneman (1986) asked participants to choose between two treatments that were going to be used with 600 people suffering from a deadly disease. Two groups of participants were given the same facts about the success and failure rates of the treatment but the facts were framed differently. When one treatment was positively framed 72% of participants picked it compared to only 22% of participants selecting the treatment when it was negatively framed.
operationalizing
Independent and Dependent variables must be operationalised; this means clearly defining them so they can be manipulated (IV) and measured (DV)
Benefits: Ensures studies can be repeated (reliability)
Issues: Some variables are difficult to operationalise (e.g. anger levels). Operationalising variables means only one aspect of the variable is measured.
control variable
In an experiment want to produce valid results. Therefore need to be sure that the only reason why the dependent variable changes is because the independent variable has been changed.
As a result all other variables that could affect the dependent variable must be controlled.
There are two types of variables that need to be controlled:
Extraneous variables: Nuisance variables that have an effect on the DV. (If extraneous variables are present the validity of the study is reduced)
Confounding variables: Variables that affect the dependent variable and vary systematically with the IV. (If confounding variables are present, the study is meaningless)
aim
A statement of what the researchers intend to find out.
hypothesis
A precise statement about what the presumed relationship between the variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable.
