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paper 2 > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

central nervous system

A

comprises of the brain and spinal cord and has two functions: control behaviour and regulate the body’s physiological processes

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2
Q

the brain

A

-Receives information from the sensory receptors

-Responsible for coordinating sensation, intellectual and nervous activity

-Sends signals to the muscles and glands of the body

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3
Q

the spinal cord

A

-Bundle of nerve fibres enclosed within the spinal column

-Main function is to relay information between the brain and the rest of the body

-Also contains circuits of nerve cells that allow us to perform simple reflex actions eg. pulling hand away from something hot

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4
Q

PNS

A

the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord, that connect to the CNS.

⤷The peripheral nervous system has two branches - the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

⤷The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary, vital functions of the body, which can be further split into 2 branches.

⤷The somatic nervous system receives transmits and receives information from the senses and direct muscles to react and move (voluntary movements).

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5
Q

endocrine system

A

⤷Consists of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream

⤷Pituitary gland = master gland

⤷Other important glands = adrenal glands, ovaries, testes

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6
Q

hypothalamus

A

controls the pituitary gland

⤷The hypothalamus receives information from many sources around the body and responds when the body deviates from normal conditions.

⤷One of the ways it does this is by regulating the hormones produced by the pituitary gland.

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7
Q

pituitary gland

A

produces hormones.

⤷Some of these hormones directly bring about physiological reactions in cells, others cause other glands to produce hormones

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8
Q

negative feedback

A

High levels of a pituitary hormone in blood

Receptors in the hypothalamus detect the high levels

Pituitary gland stops releasing hormones

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9
Q

sensory neurons

A

carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS. when impulses from sensory neurons reach the brain they are translated into sensations so the organism can react appropriately

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10
Q

relay neurons

A

connects sensory and motor neurons found in the CNS

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11
Q

motor neurons

A

found in CNS, connected to the muscles or glands and bring about responses

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12
Q

relay action

A

⤷Automatic, rapid responses that do not involve conscious areas of the brain.

⤷Consist of just three neurons.

⤷Protective responses that occur in response to certain stimuli.

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13
Q

synaptic transmission

A

⤷Action potential reaches the the synaptic knob and causes vesicles containing neurotransmitter to move towards presynaptic membrane.

⤷Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

⤷Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft and binds to receptors on postsynaptic membrane.

⤷The binding causes an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron

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14
Q

excitatory

A

Involves a neurotransmitter than upon binding to the receptors increases the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron. (EPSP - Excitatory postsynaptic potential)

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15
Q

inhibitory

A

Involves a neurotransmitter that upon binding to the receptors decreases the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron. (IPSP - Inhibitory postsynaptic potential)

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16
Q

acute stress

A

⤷Amygdala sends stress signals to the hypothalamus

⤷Hypothalamus activates sympathetic nervous system

⤷Sympathetic nervous system causes the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline

⤷When threat has passed parasympathetic nervous system becomes active and reduces adrenaline release

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17
Q

adrenaline

A

⤷Increased heart beat (increases blood flow to organs)

⤷Breathing rate increases (increased oxygen intake)

⤷Triggers release of glucose and fats (more energy release)

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18
Q

chronic stress

A

HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis)

⤷Hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)

⤷CRH causes anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

⤷ACTH causes the adrenal cortex to release cortisol`

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19
Q

end-and-befriend response

A

⤷Women respond to stress by tending to offspring and befriending other women - Taylor et al (2000).

⤷Women have higher levels of oxytocin that could be responsible for this.

⤷SRY gene on Y chromosome is responsible for promoting aggression and resulting in a fight or flight response.

⤷Von Dawans et al (2012) challenge the argument that only women exhibit the tend and befriend response.

⤷Human connections are formed between men and women during crisis (9/11)

20
Q

fight or flights evaluations

A

-poor real world validity (Everyday stressful situations dont regularly need you for fight or flight.Can cause strain on your heart if stress is constant)
-external validity (Freeze response.Meaning you are hypovigilant to danger)
-low population validity

21
Q

localisation of function

A

Simple organisms don’t have the nervous system divided

Complex organisms evolved specialised nerves and connections for important tasks - resistant to damage

Functions are associated with activity in specific areas

22
Q

motor cortex

A

stimulates and controls conscious physical movements

23
Q

somatosensory

A

Synthesises sensory information from the peripheral neurons to create physical sensations

24
Q

visual cortex

A

Has 5 layers, orients stimuli, depth perception, shapes

25
Q

auditory cortex

A

Receives signals from the ears and creates auditory perceptions (hearings)

26
Q

brocas area

A

centre for language production, combines essential signals from other regions to create speech

27
Q

wernickes area

A

Centre for making sense of language - interprets physical and verbal communication

28
Q

localisation of functions evaluations

A

-reliable and valid (Stroke patients show aphasia - specific functions were lost when damaged in corresponding brain areas.Stroke patients have uncontrolled brain damage - ungeneralizable to most people)
-evolutionary benefits (localised function helps survival - individuals can still function even if they suffer some brain damage.Localised specialist brain areas allow greater flexibility + intelligence - others free for other tasks)
-generalisability ( Localisation decreases with age - as we get older more neural connections are strengthened - “plasticity”, old = less localised. Male brains are more localised than female brains which are more functionally integrated on average)

29
Q

lateralisation

A

There are two different halves to the brain

Both hemispheres communicate via the Corpus callosum

Some functions are mirrored in both hemispheres while others are just localised in only one hemisphere

30
Q

sperry

A

Aim: investigate hemispheric lateralisation of function in split brain patients

IV1: number shown to right hand side

IV2: number shown to left hand side

DV(a): accuracy in reporting stimuli via hand signal

DV(b): accuracy in reporting numbers via speech

Findings:

Stimuli shown to rhs can be presented by language but not not hand signal

Stimuli shown to lhs can be presented by hand signal but not language

Conclusion:Severing the corpus callosum in the brain prevents lateralized functional areas from receiving signals from the opposite side of the brain

Functional areas localised on both sides of the hemispheres will always connect to the opposite side of the body - Contralateral Organisation

31
Q

plasticity and function recovery

A

Plasticity - The ability to change and adapt in response to experience

Humans are born with small and incomplete brains and make new neural connections through their life

Connections develop fastest at a young age ( young minds are more plastic and willing to change)

Unused pathways are destroyed - Pruning

Plasticity can help recovery from injury

Structural Plasticity (growth) - Experience causes a change to brain structure

Functional Plasticity (recovery) - When localised functioning tissue of the brain is damaged - the localised functioning moves and occurs in a different area of the brain that is undamaged

32
Q

neuroplastic growth

A

Synaptic Pruning - unused axons are weakened and then destroyed

Neural Unmasking - Hormone, growth factor called NGF is released by overused neuron to encourage growth

Axonal Sprouting - “guidance proteins” and neurotrophins encourage growth

Synaptic Connections - New connections form and strengthen an ‘overused’ neuron so it can cope with more usage

33
Q

Neuroplasticity functional recovery

A

Axon Damage (Axotomy) - Axon is severed due to injury

Axonal Sprouting - New axon / dendrites grow toward the target area as it releases NGF (growth factor)

Blood vessels reform (capillary + glial cells) - “glial cells” wrap around capillaries; support blood-brain barrier)

Recruitment of homologous (similar) areas - usually on opposite hemispheres

34
Q

fMRI

A

Ppt performs task inside electromagnet tunnel

Magnetic field nuclei aligns hydrogen nuclei

Radio pulse “flips” nuclei, when they re-align, they release energy

Energy differences are mapped using a coil onto a computer generated frame - brighter areas signify more blood flow - more usage

Strengths: non-invasive, objective, reliable, better than self report, no radiation

Weaknesses: Correlational as it suggest blood flow = activity, shows working regions but no neural connections (connectome project)

35
Q

EEG

A

Measures electrical activity in the brain using scalp connections and can diagnose epilepsy (spikes) and Alzheimer (less activation)

EEGs detect 4 types of waves:

Gamma (alert/problem solving/learning), Beta (awake and aroused), Alpha (awake + relaxed), Theta (Light sleep /dreaming/ deep meditation), Delta

Strengths: cheap, observe changes in frequencies of brain waves,

Weaknesses:Neocortical measurements only (surface level only), Correlation of wave frequencies

36
Q

ERPs

A

Initially repeat experiment many times to find a baseline for brain voltage

Infer electrical activity caused due to the activity

Sensory ERP - within 100 ms of stimuli

Cognitive ERP - after 100 ms of stimuli

Strengths: cheap, strong application, law enforcement / used as lie detector

Weaknesses: Correlational (third variables), large number of trials needed for base - time consuming, neocortical measurements only

37
Q

post mortem

A

Inspection of individuals brain known to have an impairment after their death to find what went wrong with their brain

Strengths: Highly detailed, all regions available, strong applications in understanding medical research

Weaknesses: Correlational only and can’t be tested, lots of confounding variables (and extraneous variables)

38
Q

circadian rhythms

A

A biological rhythm - a repeating pattern in behaviour in a body’s system

Evolutionary pressure on these rhythms include avoiding predators and repair/growth/recovery

Biological clock responds to sunlight

39
Q

24-hours light-dark cycle

A

Each morning - light stimulates intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells to transmit a signal to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

This signal travels to the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus through the Retinohypothalamic Tract

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus transmits signals of neuroendocrine and autonomic descent to synchronise rhythm in all tissue

As light levels decrease, the pineal gland begins to secrete more melatonin which nullifies the signals from the SCN - leads to sleep

40
Q

example of circadian rhythm

A

7:30am - Melatonin secretion stops

2:30pm - Best coordination

5:00pm - Greatest cardiovascular efficiency + Muscular strength

9:00pm - Melatonin secretion starts

41
Q

ultradian and infradian rhythms

A

7:30am - Melatonin secretion stops

2:30pm - Best coordination

5:00pm - Greatest cardiovascular efficiency + Muscular strength

9:00pm - Melatonin secretion starts

42
Q

INF the menstrual cycle

A

Menstruation (uterus lining sheds) →

Ovulation (mature egg released from ovaries) →

Uterus lining thickens more →

Menstruation + repeats

43
Q

seasonal affective disorder

A

overreacting, unexplained weight gain, Depression, sleeping more

Summer SAD = loss of appetite, unexpected weight loss, Insomnia, irritability

44
Q

The glymphatic system

A

Cerebrospinal fluid helps remove waste products of the brain in a convection process

Happens in pulses, faster at night than at day

Can be applied to help understand Alzheimars disease → may develop treatments

45
Q

endogeous pacemaker

A

Internal stimuli that control biological rhythms (e.g. suprachiasmatic nucleus, pineal gland)

46
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

“Master circadian clock” - controls cycles in other organs

Researchers took hamsters with two different circadian rhythms and implanted their SCN into one another. In all cases, the donors circadian rhythm was followed

Pineal Gland

Receives signals from the SCN, depending on light levels to produce melatonin

Melatonin is derived from serotonin and is inhibitory. It can inhibit many areas of the brain such as the ones responsible for wakefulness (mesencephalon, limbic system)

→ leads to sleep

47
Q

exogenous zeitgebers

A

External stimuli that control biological rhythms and processes (e.g. light)

Light

Rods and cone cells in eyes use opsins to detect light

Third photoreceptor cell: ipRGCs (Intrinsically photoreceptive retinal ganglion cells)

ipRGCs use melanopsin to detect and communicate intensity of light and the wavelength

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