Research methods Flashcards
Independent variable
The groups in the experiment. What the researcher manipulates (the cause)
Dependent variable
The researcher measures this (the effect)
What does operationalising mean?
Being specific about what you are measuring and how it will be measured. Needs to be done for both IV and DV
What is a hypothesis?
Where the researcher will make a clear testable prediction about the outcome of the investigation
What is a 1 tailed or “directional” hypothesis?
When the researcher predicts which condition will be higher
What is a 2 tailed or “non directional” hypothesis?
When the researcher predicts there will be a difference between the conditions
What is a null hypothesis?
when the researcher predicts there will be no significant difference between the conditions
What is an extraneous variable?
An additional variable that may have an effect on the result (DV)
What are the 4 Types of extraneous variables?
Participant - Characteristics of the p
Situational - External environmental factors
Researcher - Researcher bias
Demand characteristics - Participant changing behaviour to fit the aims of experiment
Quantitative data strengths and weaknesses:
+ More objective
+ Easier to compare and manipulate
- can lack meaning/validity
Qualitative data strengths and weaknesses:
+ Has more meaning/validity
- More subjective
- Harder to compare and manipulate
What is primary data?
Data collected by researcher for the purpose of specific investigation
What is secondary data?
Data that has been collected previously not by the researcher conducting the current investigation
Strengths and weaknesses of primary data:
+ You can control your own procedure
+ You can be more sure of the validity
- Small sample
- Need to consider ethical guidelines
Strengths and weaknesses of meta analysis:
+ increased sample size
+ don’t need to consider ethical guidelines
+ can overcome issues of population validity
- Cannot choose exactly what to study
- Publication bias
- Validity of the original studies not detemined
- Mixing studies not measuring the same thing
What is publication bias?
The failure to publish the results of a study on the basis of the direction or strength of the study findings
Mean definition and +/-
The arithmetic average
+ Most sensitive, extracts most info from scores because all raw data is included
- Can be greatly affected by outliers
Median and +/-
The middle value when scores are arranged in descending order
+ It is not effected by outliers
- Does not take all raw scores into account
Mode and +/-
The most frequently occurring value
+ Only measure possible when data is not numerical (nominal)
- Mode is not applicable in data sets without modes
What is standard deviation?
Most powerful measure of dispersion, tells us how far on average each score is from the mean
+ uses all data points
What are Independent groups?
Participant divided into 2 groups, each do experimental task with the IV set for condition 1 or 2. And compare each groups results.
What is repeated measures?
Participants do experimental task with IV set for condition 1, then repeats with condition 2 and compare.
What is matched pairs?
Recruit a group of P’s, find out what sort of people you have in the group and recruit another group that matches them 1 for 1.
Carry out the experiment as independent groups
Strengths and weaknesses of independent groups:
+ No order effects
+ Lower drop out rate
- Groups may not be well matched
- Requires a different set of participants for each condition
Strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures :
+ Groups are perfectly matched
+ requires fewer participants
- Order effects such as practice, boredom and fatigue
Strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs:
+ Control of participant variables
- Time consuming and may not be possible to completely match both groups
What are the main 5 ethical issues
Informed consent
Deception
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
Privacy/confidentiality
What is the animal ethical code?
Replace - Find alternatives (e.g computer modelling or less sentient animals)
Reduce - Use fewer animals
Refine - Improve procedures to cause less harm
What makes a natural experiment?
If the independent variable is naturally occurring
Two examples of psychology’s contribution to the economy
The role of fathers - Research indicated fathers were equally able to provide good quality care for children. Allowing more women to re-enter the workforce after having children
Drug treatments for psychiatric illness - Absence from work costs the economy an estimated £15bn a year. Improved understanding of anxiety and depression improves the lives of individuals and the productivity of the workforce
What is opportunity sampling? (include +/-)
The sampling technique of taking the sample from people who are available at the time and fit the criteria you are looking for.
+ Quick and easy
+ Practical
- Biased, similar characteristics (e.g. psychology students)
What is random sampling? (include +/-)
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.
+ Unbiased, cannot choose more suitable Ps
- Not representative of the pop characteristics
What is Systematic sampling? (include +/-)
When every nth member of the target population is selected
+ Unbiased, cannot choose more suitable Ps
- Not representative of the pop characteristics
What is stratified sampling? (include +/-)
Classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of Ps from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population
+ Representative for one characteristic
- Not representative for all characteristics
- Takes ages
What is volunteer sampling? (include +/-)
Self selected sampling, volunteer when asked or in response to an advert
+ Likely to give consent
+ Low effort needed
- Not representative due to characteristics of volunteers
What are 5 features of scientific research
- Empirical
- Objectivity
- Reliability
- Established cause and effect
- Create general laws
What is falsifiability?
It is the principle that a proposition or theory could only be considered scientific if in principle it was possible to establish it as false.
e.g - “All swans are white” this could be proven incorrect with the finding of one black swan so is falsifiable .
“all swans are beautiful” is less falsifiable as beauty is subjective and difficult to disprove
Why is the psychodynamic approach considered unscientific?
Oedipal complex / penis envy / the unconscious are subjective and unfalsifiable.
What is meant by “new paradigm research” ?
A shift in the fundamental assumptions, methodologies, or perspectives within a particular field of study. Driven mainly via technological advances. Has to adhere to scientific criteria to be accepted and considered new paradigm research.
What is meant by a “multi-method discipline” ?
A field of study or academic discipline that employs and integrates a variety of research methods to investigate and understand phenomena.
Definition and +/- of Laboratory experiments:
Artificial environment for the behaviour
+ Standardised
+ Highly controlled, high internal validity
- Lack ecological validity, findings cannot be generalised
- Demand characteristics are a disadvantage, P’s are aware they are being observed
Definition and +/- of Field experiments:
Takes place in a realistic environment for the behaviour, the researcher still manipulates the IV.
+ higher ecological validity and mundane realism
+ Avoids demand characteristics because participants are not aware they are being observed
- Less control over EV’s
- Ethical guidelines - Deception/consent/right to withdraw etc.
Definition and +/- of Natural experiments:
An experiment where the independent variable is naturally occurring
+ Allows research to take place that might not be ethical otherwise
+ Natural experiments often have high external validity
- A naturally occurring event might happen vary rarely, reducing opportunity for research. Less scope for generalising findings to other situations
- Participants might not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, researcher less sure on direct cause and effect
Definition and +/- of quasi experiments:
Researcher takes advantage of a pre existing IV based on existing differences between people
+ Same strengths as lab or field experiments depending on how they are carried out
+ Sometimes only viable option
- Quasi experiments like natural experiments, cannot randomly allocate participants to experimental conditions and therefore there might be confounding variables
What are confounding variables?
Confounding variables are variables that are not the focus of the study but have a systematic effect on the relationship between the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV).
What is reliability?
Refers to the consistency of a study or measuring device. Findings are reliable if the results are similar each time using the same design, procedures and measurements
Ways of assessing reliability:
- The test-retest method (same test taken by same Ps on 2 different occasions)
- Inter-observer reliability (Different observers use the same measure, the findings are correlated)
Outline one way in which a psychologist could have assessed the reliability of the questionnaire (3 marks)
- Test-retest method, same people tested using the same questionnaire to see if the findings remained consistent. The researcher could check for a positive correlation between the answers on the 2 questionnaires
What is validity?
The accuracy, the degree to which something measures what it claims to do
What is temporal validity?
Whether research findings successfully apply across time
What is face validity?
A measure of whether it looks subjectively probable that a tool measures what its supposed to.
Brainstorm ways of improving internal and external validity
- Counterbalancing
- Expertise
- Standardised procedures
- Single blind and double blind technique
- Anonymous responses
- Conduct observations covertly
What does operationalise mean?
Means to turn the variables in your experiment into a measurable form
