Issues and Debates

Question 1

What is Alpha Bias?

Answer 1

• The assumption that there are significant differences in behaviour between genders, often leading to overemphasis or exaggeration of these differences

Question 2

Give an example of when alpha bias is evident in psychological research.

Answer 2

Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Question 3

What is Beta Bias?

Answer 3

• The assumption that there are no significant differences between the behaviour of males and females, often leading to underestimating or minimising actual behavioural differences

Question 4

Give an example of when beta bias is evident in psychological research.

Answer 4

• Asch and Milgram’s research

Question 5

What is meant by “Androcentrism”

Answer 5

Psychologists and theories that tend to reflect and support a male-centric view of the world. This bias is dur to the fact that most psychologists who developed these theories were male

Question 6

What is Cultural bias?

Answer 6

Interpreting and judging human behaviour based on cultural norms and experiences

Question 7

What is meant by “ethnocentrism”?

Answer 7

When researchers consider their own culture or ethnic group to be superior/the norm and use it as the standard for evaluating other cultures (e.g. Ainsworth’s strange situation)

Question 8

What is cultural relatism?

Answer 8

The principle that human behaviour should be understood within the context of the culture where it occurs, taking into account that cultures norms, values and beliefs

Question 9

How can bias in psychology be reduced?

Answer 9

• Greater diversity = more female psychologists = reduce androcentrism.
• Indigenous psychology should be encouraged (research that is conducted by individuals who are native to or deeply understand the culture under investigation

Question 10

What is hard determinism?

Answer 10

The idea that behaviour is set by foces outside of our control, with no role for free will.

Question 11

What is soft determinism?

Answer 11

The idea that traits and behaviours are, to an extent, dictated by internal and external forces. However, we do have some level of control (free will) over our behaviour through conscious thought processes. (cognitive psychology)

Question 12

What is free will?

Answer 12

Individuals consciously decide their behaviour without deterministic constraints (Humanistic psychology)

Question 13

What is biological determinism?

Answer 13

Behaviour is set by our genetics and biological processes, such as hormone and neurotransmitter levels and the functioning of brain structures.

Question 14

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 14

Our experiences in the world shape our behaviour. We have learned to behave in certain ways based on factors like reinforcement and growing up in a certain culture. (SLT and behaviourism)

Question 15

What is Psychic determinism?

Answer 15

Innate drives, shaped by childhood experiences, form unconscious forces that determine behaviour. (psychodynamic approach)

Question 16

Free will +/-

Answer 16

+Has face validity, people have the conscious experience of agency, feeling like they have the ability to choose their actions. However, determinists would argue this feeling is an illusion.
- No cause and effect, so considered unscientific

Question 17

Hard determinism +/-

Answer 17

+ Assuming the scientific principle of cause and effect, it allows for the development of drug treatments etc.
- Arguing that behaviour is due to a single determining factor is likely and oversimplification: its more accurate to consider behaviour as coming from the interplay of multiple factors (holism)

Question 18

Key idea for nurture

Answer 18

Philosophical empiricists The mind starts as a blank slate or “tabula rasa”. Learning is more important in determining behaviour as knowledge comes from interaction with the world

Question 19

Key idea for nature

Answer 19

Philosophical nativists such as Descartes assume biological heredity (genes) is more important in determining bnehaviour.

Question 20

Psychological theories closer to nature

Answer 20

Genetic explanation for OCD
Bowlby’s monotropic theory and evolutionary theories.

Question 21

Psychological theories closer to nurture

Answer 21

Cupboard love theory of attachment
Ainswortjh’s attachment styles
Social learning theory
Schemas

Question 22

What is the diathesis stress model?

Answer 22

individuals may inherit a genetic (nature) predisposition for a mental health condition (diathesis). The expression of the disorder doesn’t happen unless it is triggered by an environmental (nature) stressor.

Question 23

Briefly explain what is meant by “levels of explanation”

Answer 23

Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher, more holistic multivariable level

Question 24

What is socially sensitive research (SSR)?

Answer 24

Research that has ethical implications for people beyond the researchers and participants directly involved.

Question 25

What is meant by reductionism?

Answer 25

The scientific attempt to provide an explanation in terms of smaller, singular factors.

Question 26

What is meant by holism?

Answer 26

The approach that studies behaviours as a collection of factors that interact together.

Question 27

Evaluations of reductionism

Answer 27

+ In lines with the principles of science (objective, replicability, establishing cause-effect
+ Results can be used more easily for application
+ Generally the method used by most approaches as findings have more credibility
- makes complex behaviour very simplistic leading to loss of validity
- Cannot give us a full understanding of behaviour
- Some variables cannot be isolated and quantified/measured

Question 28

Evaluations of holism

Answer 28

+ Appreciates complexity of behaviour - better validity
+ Allows for study of variables that cannot be isolated and quantified/measured
+ Considers individual differences and why behaviours happen
- Not in line with the principles of science
- Results only applicable to each individual, cant be used on a wider scale.
- Generally not the methods used by most approaches - hinders ‘progress’ of psychology

Question 29

What is meant by idiographic?

Answer 29

Focuses on individual and recognition of uniqueness. Includes private, subjective and conscious experiences. No attempt to compare these to a larger group. Uses mainly qualitative methods of investigation.

Question 30

What is meant by nomothetic?

Answer 30

Attempts to establish laws and generalisations about people, objective knowledge through scientific methods. Quantitative methods of investigation.

Question 31

Examples of nomothetic approaches:

Answer 31

Behaviourism (Skinner studied the behaviour of hundreds of animals to make generalisations)
SLT (Bandura used lab experiments to study imitation and modelling)
Cognitive (learnt the structure and processes of memory by studying large samples of people in lab studies)
Biological (brain scans make generalisations about localisation of function)

Question 32

Examples of idiographic approaches:

Answer 32

humanistic - Emphasises individual
Psychodynamic - Use of case studies

Question 33

Evaluations of Idiographic :

Answer 33

+ Detail study presents a more accurate picture of behaviour
+ Can help with new discoveries
+ Studying difference is essential as the number of variables interacting in humans is large
+ Works well when used alongside the nomothetic approach
- Difficult to generalise
- Cannot make predictions
- Methods are subjective, open to bias and findings are not always clear

Question 34

Evaluations of nomothetic:

Answer 34

+ Regarded as scientific
+ Has helped psychology to make predictions used in practical application
+ Unified paradigms
- Predictions can be made about groups but not individuals
- Approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person’
- Gives a superficial understanding, we cant understand ‘why’
- Extensive use of controlled lab experiments creates a lack of generalisation to everyday life (low ecological validity)

Question 35

Evaluation point 1 for gender bias

Answer 35

Incorrect conclusions based on assumptions which can effect the validity of research and theories. e.g- Asch incorrectly generalised his theories to men and women, however research has shown that women are even more conformist than men. so his androcentric view has led to invalid conclusions