Research Methods Flashcards
What are the 4 types of experiments?
- Lab
- Field
- Natural
- Quasi
Describe Lab experiments
- Experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV, both need to be operationalised.
- Experimenter has high levels of control (can control the extraneous/cofounding variables)
- meaning that the only difference between conditions is the IV
- participants are randomly allocated to conditions
- reduces any extraneous variables from participants which could affect the DV
- other factors are also randomised such as the order of the stimuli and the order participants take part
Two strengths of a Lab experiment
- the procedure can be easily replicated (due to high levels of control) - replication allows experimenters to check for reliability
- internal validity is high (easier to control potential confounding variables) - sure that the only factor affecting the DV is the IV
Two weaknesses of the Lab experiment
- reduces ecological validity (high level of control, IV and DV’s are more likely to become artificial so different from real life situations
- demand characteristics (participants know they are being researched and may be inclined to work in a way they think is required) - Measurement of DV is not a true reflection of behaviour (reduces internal validity)
Describe Field experiments
- carried out in natural environments ~ (schools, homes or on the street) improve realism
- Researcher still manipulates the IV and measures the DV
- Participants are usually aware they are participating
two strengths of the Field experiment
- higher levels of ecological validity (Natural environment)~ results can be generalised to other situations
- Demand characteristics are lower (participants are unaware they are taking part)~increases internal validity
a drawback of the field experiment
- time consuming (may only be a small number of people around at certain times, may get participants who go to the area) ~reduces population validity
Describe a natural experiment
- Naturally occurring events that create a change
- researcher has no control over the IV
- sometimes due to ethical and practical reasons this is the only suitable experiment
Two strengths of a natural experiment
- high levels of ecological validity (take place in the natural surroundings, meaning that behaviour is more likely to be representative) ~results can be generalised to situations other than the experiment
- Demand Characteristics are low in natural experiments (participants do not know they are in an experiment) increases internal validity
Two limitations of a natural experiment
- desired behaviour being displayed is limited (no control over the situation) ~ hard to replicate to test for reliability
- Not able to control extraneous variables (may impact the IV and DV) ~ reducing internal validity
What is a Quasi
use pre-existing IV
- can be in controlled or more natural conditions
Name observational techniques
- naturalistic observation
- Controlled observation
- overt observation
- Covert observation
- participant observation
- non-participant observation
Describe Naturalistic observation
- researcher observing naturally occurring behaviour (Researcher does not get involved at all) ~ natural setting
Strength of naturalistic observation
- high external validity (findings should be applicable to other similar settings) ~increased ecological validity
Limitation of naturalistic observation
- not controlled by researchers
- extraneous variables are not able to be controlled
- may impact the DV
What is a controlled observation
- researcher attempts to control certain variables
- participants know they are being studied and they are usually carried out in a lab
Strength of controlled observation
- high levels of control
- variables and environment are controlled
- allows the research to be replicated to check for reliability
Drawbacks of controlled observation
- high levels of control
- situation may not be a representative
- findings lack external validity
- lacking generalisability
Describe Overt observation
- participants are aware they are being observed and they are usually aware of the nature and purpose of the research
Strength of Overt observation
- makes it more ethical as they know they are being observed
- easier to test for reliability
Limitations of Overt Observation
- demonstrate demand characteristics
- as they are aware they are being observed
- change their behaviour to please experimenter
- reduces validity
describe covert observations
- when participants do not know that they are being observed
- may involve the observer being hidden or behind two way glass
Strength of covert observations
- more likely to demonstrate natural behaviour
- unlikely to show demand characteristics
- increases validity
Limitation of covert observations
- raises ethical issues
- make it more difficult to replicate to check for reliability
Describe Participant observation
observer joins the group of people being studied
Strength of participant observation
- understand the behaviour shown in the correct context
- increases validity
Weakness of participant observation
researcher spends a lot of time with the group so may develop subjective opinions which can affect objectivity of data
Describe Non-participant observation
- observer remains external
- records the data more objectively
strength of non-participant observation
- more objective
- investigator effects are less likely to affect results
limitation of non-participant observation
- does not understand the context of the behaviour
- less detailed (valuable data missed)
Name two self report techniques
Questionnaires
interviews
Define self report techniques
- enable people in the study to provide info knowingly about specific things relating to themselves
“what they thought”
Define a Questionnaire
printed series of questions used to gather opinions/attitudes/own behaviours about specific areas of interest
Describe the key features of a questionnaire
- can be distributed by telephone, post, internet or left for participants to collect
- important to get a large representative sample
- researcher does not need to be present
How to construct a questionnaire
- can produce both quantitative and qualitative data
- closed questions (produce quantitative data) - researcher determines range of answers (tick box)
-Open ended questions (qualitative data) - researcher does not restrict the range of answers - Leading questions should be avoided
Strengths of using a Questionnaire
- simplicity (minimum amount of training to administer) - closed questions can be easy to analyse - (can gather a large sample which makes the study more representative increasing population validity
- less influence of interpersonal variables (people can do it alone so there answer isn’t influenced by other people)- reduces demand characteristics or socially desirable answers (internal validity increases)
Weakness of a questionnaire
- potential problems with question wording (people may interpret the question in different ways) - leading questions (reduce internal validity
- Response rate (if sent out online or by post people who reply can be quite low) - sample is not representative
Define an interview
- gather info about what people know, feel or do about particular topic or issue
- gathering more detailed info
3 types of interviews
structured
semi structured
unstructured
Describe a structured interview
- same set of standardised questions in the same order
- more quantitative
Describe Semi-structured interviews
- same questions for all interviewees
- however there is flexibility in the order
- allows interview to flow naturally
- allows interviewee to give a more personal response
Describe Unstructured interviews
- More informal
- Allowed to unfold in its own way
- interviewee is largely in control
Design of an interview
1) Preliminaries to the interview (clearly described the research question) - stated the aim
2) The question (appropriate set of questions)-(order, balance of type of questions)
3) interview procedure (identified and approached potential respondents, how its going to be recorded)
Strengths of an interview
- Accurate Data (after they spend time together, the interviewee may feel more comfortable giving honest answers) - increase internal validity
- Detailed data (interviewer can ask open ended question)- (info can be clarified)
Weaknesses of an interview
- hard to analyse
- interpersonal variables
What are the 3 types of correlation
-Positive
-Negative
-Zero correlation
What is a positive correlation
As one variable increases so does the other
What is a negative correlation
As one variable decreases so does the other
What is zero correlation
Shows no relationship between the 2 variables
What is a coding unit?
The specific behaviors that you are going to count in the material chosen to be analysed e.g A word or phrase
What is a pilot study?
A small scale study carried out with a restricted number of participants before the process of collecting data begins
What are the aims of a pilot study?
To make sure the materials the researcher is planning to use are suitable and to identify any potential problems
What issues is the researcher looking for in a pilot study?
Experiments
-Environment
-Surroundings
-Procedure being used
-Looking for a stimulus being used
Observations
-Reliability
Interviews
-Questions you ask
What are the 5 different sampling techniques?
-Opportunity sampling
-Random sampling
Systematic sampling
-Stratified sample
-Volunteer sample
What is opportunity sampling?
Participants are selected by using those people who are most easily available
What is random sampling?
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
What is systematic sampling?
The researcher selects every nth participant from the list of participants who are available
what is stratified sampling?
The sample reflects the key characteristics of the subgroups of the target population
What is volunteer sampling?
A researcher will place an advert asking for volunteers for participants for their research
What is an aim?
A general statement which outlines what is being investigated
What is a hypothesis?
A specific prediction about the outcome of the investigation
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts the direction of the results (e.g one condition of the if has a greater effect on the DV)
What is a Non-directional hypothesis?
States there will be a difference, but not which condition will be faster/slower/less/more)
What are the 6 ethical guidelines?
-Informed consent
-Deception
-Protection of participants
-Right to withdraw
-Debriefing
-Confidentiality
What is informed consent?
When possible the investigators should inform all participants of the objectives of the investigation
What is deception?
Withholding info or misleading participants
What is protection of participants?
Participants must not be harmed by the investigation procedures: no stress or distress must be caused
What is right to withdraw?
Participants must be made aware that they can withdraw from the investigation at any stage, refuse to continue during the procedure or withdraw their results after de briefing
What is confidentiality?
Info obtained about participants during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance
What info goes in an informed consent form?
-The topic being investigated
-Explain what they are expected to do during the study
-Explain anything that might affect the participant s willingness to participate
-Inform participants that their results and name will remain confidential
-Leave space for the participants to sign
-Give the participant the opportunity to ask any questions
What information goes into a debriefing form?
-Thank participants for taking part
-Tell the participants the research question they were investigating
-Give participants the opportunity to ask any questions
-Lower participant’s levels of anxiety if needed and if necessary guide them to sources of support
What is a peer review?
When research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists before publication
What is reliability?
The consistency of the research
What are the 2 types of reliability?
-Test-retest method
-Inter-observer reliability
Why are standard deviation values useful descriptive statistics
- useful info to inform about the spread of scores
- indicates participant variables
