Research Methods Flashcards
Independent variable
the variable that is changed by the experimenter, interested in its effect.
We want to see the effect of the IV on the DV
Dependent variable
the thing we measure, it measures the effect of the IV
Extraneous Variable
anything that affects the DV that isn’t the IV
Confounding variable
when EV actually effects the experiment
Laboratory experiment
takes place in a artificial environment with high degree of control
Field experiment
takes place in a natural environment, but the experiment is still manipulating the IV
Natural experiment
takes place in a natural environment and the experimenter is NOT manipulating the IV, but rather observing and using information produced by natural circumstances
Independent measures design
Experiment where sample is split into groups. There is one control group to compare to the ones from the experimental group
Repeated measures design
Experiment where sample is split into groups. The sample does both control and experimental group. Both in different in orders and compare the data.
Matched participants design
an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age and IQ. From there, they are split into experimental and control group
Control conditions
The IV is not present. This data is compared to the experimental group
Experimental condition
The IV is present. Testing the effect of the IV on the DV
Demand characteristics
parts of the experiment may give away the aims and therefore cause participants to change their behavior to do what they think they should (this can be conscious or unconscious)
Order Effects
Practice & fatigue effects are the consequences of participating
in a study more than once (repeated measures design) and can cause
changes in performance between conditions not due to the IV
Participants variables
Individual differences between participants (like age,
gender, ethnicity, intelligence, etc) can create differences in behaviour in a
study and alter the outcome instead of differences being solely due to the IV
(either hiding or exaggerating differences)
Practice Effect
Performance improves because the participant has experienced the experimental task more than once (due to learning or familiarity)
Fatigue Effect
Performance declines because the participant has done the task more than once (due to boredom or tiredness)
Counterbalancing
used to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design experiment. Each possible order of levels of the IV is done by different subgroups. Can be ABBA, BAAB, ABAB, BABA, etc.
Standardization
Keeping the procedure for each participant exactly the same to ensure that any differences between participants or conditions are due to the variables being tested rather than differences in how they were treated
Reliability
The extent to which a procedure, task, or measure is consistent
(eg. Do you get the same results each time you do it)
Validity
The extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be
testing
Internal validity
The extent to which a piece of evidence supports a claim about cause and effect, within the context of a particular study
External Validity
The validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study
Ecological Validity
The extent to which the findings in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life
Eg. doing an experiment about playground behaviour amongst 10 year olds in a laboratory with experimenters watching will change the way participants behave and is not therefore ecologically valid)
Mundane Realism
Is the task relevant to real life, or is it artificial and
therefore participants treat it so?
Generalisability
Can the findings be applied more widely?
Self reports
–> how is it different?
–> what are the two types of self reports
A participant gives the researched information about themselves directly
This is different to experimental tests or observations where the researcher finds the data out from the participant
questionnaires and interviews
Questionnaires (3)
Written questions
Could be a physical form or online
Two types of questions: open and closed
Opened question
Asks for descriptive answers in the patient’s own words
Closed question
Has a fixed set of answers (quantitative)
Pros of opened and closed questions
opened questions - give better and in depth information
closed questions - easier to anaylse (better for comparing sets of data) –> summarising data is easier
Cons of open questions
Open questions often need to be interpreted, which means they can also be
misinterpreted
Social Desirability Bias
where participants lie to look more acceptable
filler questions (2)
can be used to disguise the real aim of a questionnaire -
these aren’t analyzed, they are just there to hide the real aim of the study
If more than one researcher is involved their interpretations may not be
consistent, this is a lack of ___.
inter-rater reliability
Interviews (3)
–> types of interviews (2)
The researcher usually asks questions face to face, but could also be over the
phone, or online chat
Sometimes the interviewer even makes sure they use the same tone of voice,
posture, clothes, etc.
Answers are relatively easy to compare because every respondent answers
the same questions
–> Structured or unstructured
Structured interview (2)
+ advantages (1)
an interview with questions in a fixed order, usually
scripted
Sometimes the interviewer even makes sure they use the same tone of voice,
posture, clothes, etc.
Answers are relatively easy to compare because every respondent answers
the same questions
Unstructured Interview (2)
+ disadvantages (1)
an interview where most questions depend on the
person’s answers.
The first question is the same, but then the questions change based on what the interviewer says
Answers are quite difficult to compare because every respondent answers
different questions
Semi-structured interview (1)
–> affect (1)
an interview with a fixed list of open and closed
questions. The interviewer can add more questions if they think it’s required
This means there is more similarity between respondents than in an
unstructured interview, but comparisons can still be difficult
Subjective
A personal viewpoint that can be biased by your own
experiences, thoughts, emotions, or beliefs
Objective
An unbiased, external viewpoint, not influenced by any personal
experiences, thoughts, emotions, or beliefs
Naturalistic observation
watching the participants’ behavior in their normal
environment without interference from the researchers in either the social or physical environment
Controlled observation
watching the participants’ behavior in a situation
where the social or physical environment has been manipulated by the
researchers. It can be conducted in either the participants’ normal
environment or an artificial situation
Unstructured observation
the observer records the whole range of possible
behaviours which is usually confined to a pilot stage at the beginning of a
study to refine the behavioural categories to be observed
Structured observation
the observer records only a limited range of
behaviours
Behavioural categories
the activities recorded in an observation that are
clearly operationalised and broken into discrete and recordable events that are
observable actions
Participant observer
a researcher who watches from the perspective of being
part of the social setting
Non-participant observer
a researcher who doesn’t become involved in the
situation being studied (eg. Watching through one-way glass or keeping apart
from the participants)
Overt observer
the role of the observer is obvious to the participants
Covert observer
the role of the observer is not obvious to the participants (because they’re either hidden or disguised)
Hypothesis
predicts a difference between levels of the IV, or a relationship
between variables (correlation)
Alternate hypothesis
predicts a difference or relationship between variables in a particular direction
Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis
predicts only that one variable will be
related to another, or that there will be a relationship between the measured
variables in a correlation (in no particular direction)
Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis
predicts that one variable will be related to
another, or that there will be a relationship between the measured variables in
a correlation (in a particular direction)
Null hypothesis
predicts that any difference or correlation in the results is due
to chance, ie. that no pattern in the results is because of the variables
Population
A part of the target group you plan to study, representative of the
population
Sampling technique
the method used to obtain the participants for a study
Opportunity sampling
participants are chosen because they are available
Volunteer (self-selected) sample
participants are invited to participate and choose to
Random sample
all members of the population are equally able to be selected in an unbiased way
Qualitative data
descriptive, in-depth results showing the quality of something (such as open questions or detailed observations)
Quantitative
numerical results about something (such as a test score or pulse rate)
Mean
the average
Median
the exact middle
Longitudinal Studies (?)
• A study that follows a single group of people over time
• These studies can go for months or even decades
• Longitudinal studies can study the effects of something over a long period of time and how it affects development
• It can look at one stage of life, or different stages of life
• Longitudinal studies can look at behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, emotions, physical development, and many other things
Informed Consent
knowing enough about a study to decide whether you will agree to participate
Right To Withdraw
participants should know that they can remove themselves, and their data, at any time (before, during, or after the experiment)
Privacy
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