Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Define reliability.
A
measure of whether results of exprmnt stay same & r consistent, when the exprnmnt is rptd
2
Q
Define validity.
A
study measured what it intndd -> measure
3
Q
What is the independent variable?
A
thing you are changing
4
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
thing you are measuring
5
Q
What are hypothesis not the same as?
A
aims
6
Q
Define operationalisation.
A
being specific about how you will manipulate your IV & measure your DV
7
Q
Define hypothesis.
A
prediction can be of difference or relationship btwn variables
8
Q
What are the 2 main types of hypothesis?
A
- experimental
- null
9
Q
What is an experimental hypothesis?
A
actual prdctn
10
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
statement saying nothing will happen/no correlation
11
Q
What are the 2 types of experimental hypothesis?
A
- 1 directional
- non directional
12
Q
What does one directional mean in hypothesis?
A
direction of results= prdctd
13
Q
What does non-directional mean in hypothesis?
A
change or difference prdctd but drctn is not specified
14
Q
Define strata.
A
layer of something
15
Q
Define population.
A
large group of people u r interested in
16
Q
Define target population.
A
specific group that researchers are interested in studying
17
Q
Define random sampling.
A
every member of the target pop. has an = chance in being selected
18
Q
Define opportunity sampling.
A
asking whoever is there at the time
19
Q
Define volunteer sampling.
A
people put themselves forward to participate in research
20
Q
Define systematic sampling.
A
uses a predetermined system
->select participants from target pop.
21
Q
Define stratified sampling.
A
composition of sample reflects composition of target pop.
once divided, pptps = chosen randomly
22
Q
How can you obtain a random sample?
A
picking no.s out of hat (lottery)
23
Q
How can you obtain a stratified sample?
A
- decide on strata
- work out proportions of each strata in target pop.
- work out proportions of each strata need to be in each category
- select randomly within each stratum
24
Q
What is experimental design?
A
how ptpts r allocated -> diff. conditions in exprmnt
25
What are the 3 types of experimental design?
- independent measures
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
26
What happens in independent measures?
each ptpt only tested in 1 condition
split into 2 or more groups
27
What happens in repeated measures?
each ptpt tested in all conditions
split into 2 or more conditions
28
What happens in matched pairs?
2 sep groups, but matched into pairs based on certain qualities
one of each pair takes part in condition A & other in condition B
29
When do order effects occur?
repeated group design - prtcpnts take part in all cndtns
30
What are the 2 types of order effects? What are they?
1. practice effects - after 1st cndtn prtcpnt might be well practiced to complete 2nd
2. tiredness - might be tired after 1st cndtn which may affect their performance in 2nd cndtn
31
Define order effects.
occurs when participants' responses in the various conditions of an experiment are affected by the order of conditions that they did them in
32
What are the 2 solution to order effects? What are they?
1. counterbalancing - ½ of ptpts participate in condition A before condition B & vice versa
2. randomisation - Ptps are assigned to condition A or B first by tossing a coin or picking out a name at random from a hat
33
What is a strength of independent measures design?
no order effects
34
What are the 4 types of experiment?
1. lab
2. field
3. natural
4. quasi
35
Define lab experiment.
an experiment conducted in a tightly controlled environment, where IV is manipulated as the researcher observes the effect of this on the DV
36
Define field experiment.
an experiment carried out in a natural environment, the IV is still manipulated but it is done in an environment which is typical to the behaviour being studied
37
Define natural experiment.
also carried out in a natural environment however the IV is not directly manipulated, instead the IV is naturally occurring.
38
Define quasi experiment.
carried out in lab conditions but the IV isn't manipulated by researcher
39
Define extraneous variable.
any other variable that might affect the IV
40
Define confounding variable.
an EV that does affect the IV
41
Define internal validity.
certainty that the IV is affecting the DV
42
Define demand characteristics.
where the participants changes their behaviour according to suit the research situation (unnatural)
43
What are 2 strengths of lab experiments?
1. highly controlled - can accurately assess the effects of IV
2. highly replicable - can be repeated so reliability of results can be checked
44
What is 1 weakness of lab experiments?
1. lacks ecological validity - cannot be easily generalised to real life situations
45
What is 1 strength of field experiments?
1. high validity - have a degree of control but held in natural environment
46
What is 1 weakness of field experiments?
1. less control - than experiments so EVs = more likely to distort findings
47
What is 1 strength of natural experiments?
1. high ecological validity = IV is not being manipulated, so findings can be generalisable
48
What are 2 limitations of natural experiments?
1. lack of control - over envrnmnt & EVs so cannot accurately assess effects of IV
2. not replicable - lack of control = pprocedure cannot be repeated
49
What is 1 strength of a quasi experiment?
1. replicable - carried out in controlled conditions so control ovr EVs
50
What is 1 limitation of a quasi experiment?
1. lack of control - ovr prtcpnts if prtcpnts cannot be randomly allocated to conditiosn
51
Where are demand characteristics more likely to occur?
lab experiment
52
Where are demand characteristics less likely to occur?
natural experiment
53
What is the acronym used to remember ethical guidelines? What does it stand for?
Can - Confidentiality & privacy
Do - Deception
Can't - Consent (informed)
Do - Debrief
With - right to Withdraw
Participants - Protection of participants
54
How can you overcome the ethical issue of informed consent?
- ptcpnts should sign a consent form
- parental consent for U16s
- retrospective consent
55
How can you overcome the ethical issue of deception?
- debrief ptcpnts @ end of exprmnt
56
How do you overcome the ethical issue of protection from harm?
- reassure prtcpnts that their bhvr = normal
- offer counselling if needed
57
How do you overcome the ethical issue of confidentiality and privacy?
- maintain anonymity
- don't share data w other researchers
58
What 6 things need to be outlined on a consent form?
- purpose of study
- events happening in study
- length of time rqurd to complete study
- what happens to their data
- informing prtcpnts of right to withdraw
- informing prtcpnts of dbrf after
59
Define standardisation.
process in which procedures are kept the same
60
What are pilot studies?
small scale 'trial' run of an investigation before real one
61
What is the aim of a pilot study?
check procedure, materials etc. to identify & modify any potential problems in order to save time & money
62
How do you reduce demand characteristics in psychological research?
single blind procedures
63
What can double blind procedures reduce in psychological research?
reduces bias
64
What are single blind procedures?
prtcpnt is not aware of how IV is being manipulated
65
What are double blind procedures?
both prtcpnt & exprmntr are unaware of how IV is being manipulated
66
Why are control groups important?
provide a comparison to real experiment
67
Define observational studies.
watching & recording ppl's behaviour
68
Give 2 reasons why psychologists use observations.
- study natural behaviour in natural envrnmnt
- can study behaviours which would be unethical to manipulate
69
What are the 6 types of observation?
naturalistic or controlled, covert or overt & participant or non-participant
70
What is a naturalistic observation?
takes place in a natural envrnmnt
71
What is a controlled observation?
takes place where some variable r manipulated & contrlld
dtrmn behaviours observed
72
What is an overt observation?
observer is not undercover & prtcpnts know they r being obsrvd
73
What is a covert observation?
observer is undercover & prtcpnts do not know they rbeing obsrvd
74
What is a participant observation?
observer acts as part of the grp being watched
75
What is a non-participant observation?
obsrvr does not become part of the grp being obsrvd
76
What does qualitative data involve?
words/literacy
77
What does quantitative data involve?
number/literacy
78
Define behaviour categories.
where target behaviour divided into categories using coding systems
79
What is a strength of participant observations?
- (potential) high external validity (because of close insight into people's lives)
80
What is a weakness of participant observations?
- risk of observer losing objectivity
81
What is a strength of non-participant observations?
- less chance of observer losing objectivity
82
What is are 2 weaknesses of non-participant observations?
- observer bias
- could lose valuable insight of observation (too far removed)
83
What are 2 strengths of overt observations?
- more practical than covert
- more ethically acceptable (ppl know they are being watched)
84
What is a weakness of overt observations?
- more likely to have demand characteristics
85
What is a strength of covert observations?
- few demand characteristics (internal validity increased)
86
What are 3 weaknesses of covert observations?
1. observer bias
2. practical problems
3. ethical problems (prtcpnts are unaware of being obsrvd)
87
What are 2 strengths of controlled observations?
1. replicable
2. less extraneous variables
88
What is a weakness of controlled observations?
- low external validity (cannot be applied to real life)
89
What are 2 strengths of naturalistic observations?
1. high external validity
2. practical method
90
What are 3 weaknesses of naturalistic observations?
- more extraneous variables
- lack of reproducibility
- observer bias
91
What are the 4 things you need to bear in mind when designing an observation?
- structured or unstructured?
- type of sampling
- use of inter observer reliability
- how are you going to record data
92
What is a unstructured observation? Why might you use this? Why might you not use this?
- research records everything you can see
- produces rich, detailed data & in small scale observation
- harder to analyse & easy to miss behaviours
93
What is a structured observation? Why might you use this? Why might you not use this?
- uses behavioural categories to record data & be more systematic
- if it is a busy situation & alot of data is expected
- observer bias
94
What are the 2 types of sampling in observations? What does each one involve?
1. event - records of different behaviours that occur
2. time - counting a specific target behaviour in a set time frame eg. every 30secs
95
When does inter observer reliability occur?
when individual observers are trained to code data in the same way
96
Why must observers be trained before an observation for inter observer reliability?
so that observers know what they are looking for
97
What is another way of improving reliability of an observation?
record a video of observation, so you can watch it back
98
What are the 2 types of data you could record in observations?
1. qualitative
2. quantitative
99
What is an example of qualitative data recording?
videos/photographs
100
What is an example of quantitaive data recording?
criteria checklist
101
Why is it important to use behaviour categories?
should enable the recording of the specific behaviour made by 2 observers to be consistent, so observation is carried out reliably
102
Define social desirability bias.
where someone doesn't accurately self report to appear more 'desirable'
103
Why is the social desirability bias a disadvantage?
makes self reporting less valid
104
What are 2 examples of self report techniques?
1. questionnaires
2. interviews
105
What are 3 advantages of questionnaires?
1. can be distributed to large number of people
2. respondents may be more willing to share personal info
3. may be less social desirability
106
What are 3 limitations of questionnaires?
1. social desirability remains an issue
2. questionnaires are only filled by people who can read & write, limits the sample
3. 'Eager sample' means questionnaires are only filled out by people who want to fill them out or have time, sample = biased
107
What are the 3 guiding principles of writing a questionnaire?
1. High clarity
2. No bias
3. Easy to analyse
