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A Level Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Define reliability.

A

measure of whether results of exprmnt stay same & r consistent, when the exprnmnt is rptd

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2
Q

Define validity.

A

study measured what it intndd -> measure

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3
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

thing you are changing

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4
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

thing you are measuring

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5
Q

What are hypothesis not the same as?

A

aims

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6
Q

Define operationalisation.

A

being specific about how you will manipulate your IV & measure your DV

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7
Q

Define hypothesis.

A

prediction can be of difference or relationship btwn variables

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8
Q

What are the 2 main types of hypothesis?

A
  • experimental
  • null
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9
Q

What is an experimental hypothesis?

A

actual prdctn

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10
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

statement saying nothing will happen/no correlation

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11
Q

What are the 2 types of experimental hypothesis?

A
  • 1 directional
  • non directional
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12
Q

What does one directional mean in hypothesis?

A

direction of results= prdctd

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13
Q

What does non-directional mean in hypothesis?

A

change or difference prdctd but drctn is not specified

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14
Q

Define strata.

A

layer of something

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15
Q

Define population.

A

large group of people u r interested in

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16
Q

Define target population.

A

specific group that researchers are interested in studying

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17
Q

Define random sampling.

A

every member of the target pop. has an = chance in being selected

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18
Q

Define opportunity sampling.

A

asking whoever is there at the time

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19
Q

Define volunteer sampling.

A

people put themselves forward to participate in research

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20
Q

Define systematic sampling.

A

uses a predetermined system
->select participants from target pop.

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21
Q

Define stratified sampling.

A

composition of sample reflects composition of target pop.
once divided, pptps = chosen randomly

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22
Q

How can you obtain a random sample?

A

picking no.s out of hat (lottery)

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23
Q

How can you obtain a stratified sample?

A
  1. decide on strata
  2. work out proportions of each strata in target pop.
  3. work out proportions of each strata need to be in each category
  4. select randomly within each stratum
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24
Q

Define experimental design.

A

how ptpts r allocated -> diff. conditions in exprmnt

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25
Q

What are the 3 types of experimental design?

A
  • independent measures
  • repeated measures
  • matched pairs
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26
Q

What happens in independent measures?

A

each ptpt only tested in 1 condition
split into 2 or more groups

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27
Q

What happens in repeated measures?

A

each ptpt tested in all conditions
split into 2 or more conditions

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28
Q

What happens in matched pairs?

A

2 sep groups, but matched into pairs based on certain qualities
one of each pair takes part in condition A & other in condition B

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29
Q

When do order effects occur?

A

repeated group design - prtcpnts take part in all cndtns

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30
Q

What are the 2 types of order effects? What are they?

A
  1. practice effects - after 1st cndtn prtcpnt might be well practiced to complete 2nd
  2. tiredness - might be tired after 1st cndtn which may affect their performance in 2nd cndtn
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31
Q

Define order effects.

A

occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions of an experiment are affected by the order of conditions that they did them in

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32
Q

What are the 2 solution to order effects? What are they?

A
  1. counterbalancing - ½ of ptpts participate in condition A before condition B & vice versa
  2. randomisation - Ptps are assigned to condition A or B first by tossing a coin or picking out a name at random from a hat
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33
Q

What is a strength of independent measures design?

A

no order effects

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34
Q

What are the 4 types of experiment?

A
  1. lab
  2. field
  3. natural
  4. quasi
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35
Q

Define lab experiment.

A

an experiment conducted in a tightly controlled environment, where IV is manipulated as the researcher observes the effect of this on the DV

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36
Q

Define field experiment.

A

an experiment carried out in a natural environment, the IV is still manipulated but it is done in an environment which is typical to the behaviour being studied

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37
Q

Define natural experiment.

A

also carried out in a natural environment however the IV is not directly manipulated, instead the IV is naturally occurring.

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38
Q

Define quasi experiment.

A

carried out in lab conditions but the IV isn’t manipulated by researcher

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39
Q

Define extraneous variable.

A

any other variable that might affect the IV

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40
Q

Define confounding variable.

A

an EV that does affect the IV

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41
Q

Define internal validity.

A

certainty that the IV is affecting the DV

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42
Q

Define demand characteristics.

A

where the participants changes their behaviour according to suit the research situation (unnatural)

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43
Q

What are 2 strengths of lab experiments?

A
  1. highly controlled - can accurately assess the effects of IV
  2. highly replicable - can be repeated so reliability of results can be checked
44
Q

What is 1 weakness of lab experiments?

A
  1. lacks ecological validity - cannot be easily generalised to real life situations
45
Q

What is 1 strength of field experiments?

A
  1. high validity - have a degree of control but held in natural environment
46
Q

What is 1 weakness of field experiments?

A
  1. less control - than experiments so EVs = more likely to distort findings
47
Q

What is 1 strength of natural experiments?

A
  1. high ecological validity = IV is not being manipulated, so findings can be generalisable
48
Q

What are 2 limitations of natural experiments?

A
  1. lack of control - over envrnmnt & EVs so cannot accurately assess effects of IV
  2. not replicable - lack of control = pprocedure cannot be repeated
49
Q

What is 1 strength of a quasi experiment?

A
  1. replicable - carried out in controlled conditions so control ovr EVs
50
Q

What is 1 limitation of a quasi experiment?

A
  1. lack of control - ovr prtcpnts if prtcpnts cannot be randomly allocated to conditiosn
51
Q

Where are demand characteristics more likely to occur?

A

lab experiment

52
Q

Where are demand characteristics less likely to occur?

A

natural experiment

53
Q

What is the acronym used to remember ethical guidelines? What does it stand for?

A

Can - Confidentiality & privacy
Do - Deception
Can’t - Consent (informed)
Do - Debrief
With - right to Withdraw
Participants - Protection of participants

54
Q

How can you overcome the ethical issue of informed consent?

A
  • ptcpnts should sign a consent form
  • parental consent for U16s
  • retrospective consent
55
Q

How can you overcome the ethical issue of deception?

A
  • debrief ptcpnts @ end of exprmnt
56
Q

How do you overcome the ethical issue of protection from harm?

A
  • reassure prtcpnts that their bhvr = normal
  • offer counselling if needed
57
Q

How do you overcome the ethical issue of confidentiality and privacy?

A
  • maintain anonymity
  • don’t share data w other researchers
58
Q

What 6 things need to be outlined on a consent form?

A
  • purpose of study
  • events happening in study
  • length of time rqurd to complete study
  • what happens to their data
  • informing prtcpnts of right to withdraw
  • informing prtcpnts of dbrf after
59
Q

Define standardisation.

A

process in which procedures are kept the same

60
Q

What are pilot studies?

A

small scale ‘trial’ run of an investigation before real one

61
Q

What is the aim of a pilot study?

A

check procedure, materials etc. to identify & modify any potential problems in order to save time & money

62
Q

How do you reduce demand characteristics in psychological research?

A

single blind procedures

63
Q

What can double blind procedures reduce in psychological research?

A

reduces bias

64
Q

What are single blind procedures?

A

prtcpnt is not aware of how IV is being manipulated

65
Q

What are double blind procedures?

A

both prtcpnt & exprmntr are unaware of how IV is being manipulated

66
Q

Why are control groups important?

A

provide a comparison to real experiment

67
Q

Define observational studies.

A

watching & recording ppl’s behaviour

68
Q

Give 2 reasons why psychologists use observations.

A
  • study natural behaviour in natural envrnmnt
  • can study behaviours which would be unethical to manipulate
69
Q

What are the 6 types of observation?

A

naturalistic or controlled, covert or overt & participant or non-participant

70
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

takes place in a natural envrnmnt

71
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

takes place where some variable r manipulated & contrlld
dtrmn behaviours observed

72
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

observer is not undercover & prtcpnts know they r being obsrvd

73
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

observer is undercover & prtcpnts do not know they rbeing obsrvd

74
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

observer acts as part of the grp being watched

75
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

obsrvr does not become part of the grp being obsrvd

76
Q

What does qualitative data involve?

A

words/literacy

77
Q

What does quantitative data involve?

A

number/literacy

78
Q

Define behaviour categories.

A

target behaviour divided into subsets using coding systems

79
Q

What is a strength of participant observations?

A
  • (potential) high external validity (because of close insight into people’s lives)
80
Q

What is a weakness of participant observations?

A
  • risk of observer losing objectivity
81
Q

What is a strength of non-participant observations?

A
  • less chance of observer losing objectivity
82
Q

What is are 2 weaknesses of non-participant observations?

A
  • observer bias
  • could lose valuable insight of observation (too far removed)
83
Q

What are 2 strengths of overt observations?

A
  • more practical than covert
  • more ethically acceptable (ppl know they are being watched)
84
Q

What is a weakness of overt observations?

A
  • more likely to have demand characteristics
85
Q

What is a strength of covert observations?

A
  • few demand characteristics (internal validity increased)
86
Q

What are 3 weaknesses of covert observations?

A
  1. observer bias
  2. practical problems
  3. ethical problems (prtcpnts are unaware of being obsrvd)
87
Q

What are 2 strengths of controlled observations?

A
  1. replicable
  2. less extraneous variables
88
Q

What is a weakness of controlled observations?

A
  • low external validity (cannot be applied to real life)
89
Q

What are 2 strengths of naturalistic observations?

A
  1. high external validity
  2. practical method
90
Q

What are 3 weaknesses of naturalistic observations?

A
  • more extraneous variables
  • lack of reproducibility
  • observer bias
91
Q

What are the 4 things you need to bear in mind when designing an observation?

A
  • structured or unstructured?
  • type of sampling
  • use of inter observer reliability
  • how are you going to record data
92
Q

What is a unstructured observation? Why might you use this? Why might you not use this?

A
  • research records everything you can see
  • produces rich, detailed data & in small scale observation
  • harder to analyse & easy to miss behaviours
93
Q

What is a structured observation? Why might you use this? Why might you not use this?

A
  • uses behavioural categories to record data & be more systematic
  • if it is a busy situation & alot of data is expected
  • observer bias
94
Q

What are the 2 types of sampling in observations? What does each one involve?

A
  1. event - no. of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual
  2. time - counting target behaviour in a set time frame eg. every 30secs
95
Q

When does inter observer reliability occur?

A

when individual observers are trained to code data in the same way

96
Q

Why must observers be trained before an observation for inter observer reliability?

A

so that observers know what they are looking for

97
Q

What is another way of improving reliability of an observation?

A

record a video of observation, so you can watch it back

98
Q

What are the 2 types of data you could record in observations?

A
  1. qualitative
  2. quantitative
99
Q

What is an example of qualitative data recording?

A

videos/photographs

100
Q

What is an example of quantitaive data recording?

A

criteria checklist

101
Q

Why is it important to use behaviour categories?

A

should enable the recording of the specific behaviour made by 2 observers to be consistent, so observation is carried out reliably

102
Q

Define social desirability bias.

A

where someone doesn’t accurately self report to appear more ‘desirable’

103
Q

Why is the social desirability bias a disadvantage?

A

makes self reporting less valid

104
Q

What are 2 examples of self report techniques?

A
  1. questionnaires
  2. interviews
105
Q

What are 3 advantages of questionnaires?

A
  1. can be distributed to large number of people
  2. respondents may be more willing to share personal info
  3. may be less social desirability
106
Q

What are 3 limitations of questionnaires?

A
  1. social desirability remains an issue
  2. questionnaires are only filled by people who can read & write, limits the sample
  3. ‘Eager sample’ means questionnaires are only filled out by people who want to fill them out or have time, sample = biased
107
Q

What are the 3 guiding principles of writing a questionnaire?

A
  1. High clarity
  2. No bias
  3. Easy to analyse

A Level Psychology (8 decks)

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