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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the 4 main stages of an experiment

A

theory, prediction, experimental, observation

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2
Q

what is an aim

A

a general statement of what the researchers intend to find out in a research study

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3
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

precise testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables

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4
Q

when is directional hypothesis used

A

when there is previous research

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5
Q

what are the 2 types of hypothesis

A

directional and non directional

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6
Q

what is a directional hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that states there will be a change and the direction in which the results are expected to go

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7
Q

what is a non directional hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that predicts that there will be a change but not the direction of the change

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8
Q

what is a null hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that no significant difference exists

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9
Q

what is an independent variable

A

a characteristic of an experiment that is changed (2 or more ‘conditions /groups)

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10
Q

what is a dependent variable

A

variable that is being measured

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11
Q

what is operationalisation

A

clearly defining the variables in terms of how they can be
measured

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12
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

any variable other than the is IV that affects the DV if not controlled

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13
Q

what are extraneous variables divided into

A

demand characteristics, investigator effects, participant variables, situational variables

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14
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

participant knows aim of research so changes behaviour

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15
Q

what are investigator effects

A

any affect of the researchers behaviour on the outcomes of the research

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16
Q

what are participant variables

A

individual differences, eg IQ

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17
Q

what are situational variables

A

any features of the experimental situation
eg: noise

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18
Q

what are two ways psychologists can control extraneous variables

A

standardisation, randomisation

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19
Q

what is standardisation

A

using exactly the same procedures and instructions for all participants

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20
Q

what is randomisation

A

the use of chance to control bias eg names out hat

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21
Q

what is mundane realism

A

how an experiment mirrors the real world

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22
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

any variable that effects the DV that isn’t the IV

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23
Q

what are examples of experimental design

A

repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs

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24
Q

what is repeated measures

A

there is only one group of participants that takes part in both conditions

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25
Q

what are strengths of repeated measures

A

no participant variables and people are the same

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26
Q

what are the limitations of repeated measures

A

they know the IV, may work out the experiment and change behaviour ( demand characteristics) may get tired or bored or practiced( order effects)

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27
Q

what is it called when the participants knows the experiment and changes their behaviour because of this

A

demand characteristics

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28
Q

what is it called when the participant repeats the experiment and gets bored or gets practice

A

order effects

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29
Q

how do you deal with the limitations of repeated measures

A

counter balancing - ABBA
half do A then B
other half to B then A

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30
Q

what is the name of the process making half the group to each condition in a different order

A

counter balancing

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31
Q

what is independent groups

A

there are two separate groups of participants. one group takes part in condition A and the other in condition B

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32
Q

what are the strengths of independent groups

A

they don’t know about the other IV, less demand characteristics, both IVs can be done at the same time( time effective), no order effects

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33
Q

what are the limitations of independent groups

A

participant variables, may be very different to less accurate results

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34
Q

how do you deal with the limitations caused by independent groups ?

A

try to make sure independent groups are as similar to each other as possible or randomly allocate ( names from a hat) reduces bias

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35
Q

what is matched pairs

A

there are two separate groups but this time they are matched in pairs for certain qualities. one group takes part in condition A and one takes part in condition B

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36
Q

what is a strength of matched pairs

A

it decreases the amount of participant variables, less demand characteristics, no order effects

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37
Q

what are the limitations of matched pairs

A

not all participant variables are gone,difficult and takes a long time

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38
Q

how do you deal with the limitations of matched pairs

A

conduct a pilot study ( small scale trial of main study) to consider key variables to match

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39
Q

what type of experimental design causes order effects

A

repeated measures

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40
Q

what are order effects

A

practice effects might occur or fatigue

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41
Q

what experimental design does counterbalancing take place in

A

repeated measures

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42
Q

what is counterbalancing

A

half of participants participate in condition A then B and the other half do B then A means the first and second condition is not the same for everyone

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43
Q

what is random allocation

A

when participants are assigned to condition A or B randomly ( names out of a hat )

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44
Q

what experimental design uses random allocation

A

independent groups

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45
Q

what are the 4 types of experiment

A

laboratory, field, natural, quasi

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46
Q

what is a laboratory experiment and what are the features

A

experiment done in a lab, controlled artificial environment, IV is manipulated by researches to observe effects on DV, Extraneous variables are controlled, standardised procedure, scientific, objective- free from bias

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47
Q

what is objectivity

A

free from bias

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48
Q

what is an example of a lab experiment

A

milgram- Yale uni, IV: authority figure
DV: whether participants where obedient to authority figure
65% of ppts administered 450 volts

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49
Q

strengths of lab experiment

A

reliable- can be repeated
free from bias
high internal validity
EVs controlled
high degree of control

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50
Q

weakness of lab experiment

A

artificial environment- lacks realism/ external validity
demand characteristics
investigator effects

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51
Q

what is a field experiment and what are the main factors

A

an experiment in an everyday setting, IV is manipulated and DV is observed, other variables difficult to control, behaviour is more natural, subjects generally unaware, can not establish cause + effect

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52
Q

what is an example of a feild experiment

A

bickman- social power of uniform
IV: uniform worn
DV: level of obedience

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53
Q

strengths of field experiments

A

participants unaware- less demand characteristics
increases realism
more research opportunities

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54
Q

weaknesses of field experiments

A

more EVs
lower internal validity
low reliability
ethical isssues- no consent

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55
Q

what is a natural experiment and what are the main factors of it

A

researcher has not chained the IV, had happened naturally and researchers look at it, used when it is not practical or ethical to manipulate IV

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56
Q

what is an example of a natural experiment

A

comparing adopted children with biological parents
bank robbery experience and memory

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57
Q

strengths of natural experiment

A

high realism
research opportunities where it would not be ethically possible

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58
Q

weaknesses of natural experiments

A

low internal validity
participant variables
lack of research opportunities

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59
Q

what is a quasi experiment

A

conducted when the IV is based on existing differences between people, not really experiment

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60
Q

what is an example of a quasi experiment

A

mental illnesses or phobias

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61
Q

what is reliability

A

being repeatable, different researchers using same methods to obtain same results ( consistent)

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62
Q

what is validity

A

(truthful) does the experiment measure what it said it was supposed to ? ( genuine)

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63
Q

what is internal validity

A

whether the effects of the experiment is due to IV and not other factors- internal validity is high when EVs are controlled

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64
Q

what is external validity

A

whether it can be generalised to the outside world ( realism ) not artificial

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65
Q

what is target population

A

the whole group that you are studying eg everyone in your year group

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66
Q

what is a sample frame

A

a list of everyone in the population. eg list of everyone in year group

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67
Q

what is a sample

A

the group of people taken from the sampling frame with whom you actually do the research. eg 1 person in every 10 from year group

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68
Q

what is cross-sectional

A

if a sample is cross sectional then it means it will be made up of a range of different people to best represent the research population

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69
Q

what is generalisation

A

results from the study can be applied to the whole of the research population

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70
Q

what is representative

A

when data can be said to accurately represent the research population in terms ofc, for example, gender and age

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71
Q

what is random sampling

A

due to chance not bias, every member of the population had an equal chance of being chosen, eg names from a hat or number generator

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72
Q

what are positives of random sampling

A

can be representative for large samples, no bias

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73
Q

what are negatives of random sampling

A

not representative for small samples, time consuming

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74
Q

what is opportunity sampling

A

when the researcher samples whoever is available at the time and willing to be studied

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75
Q

what are the 5 types of sampling

A

random, opportunity, volunteer, stratified/quota, systematic

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76
Q

what are the positives of opportunity sampling

A

economical and quick

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77
Q

what are the negatives of opportunity sampling

A

might not be representative, could be bias- people picked

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78
Q

what is volunteer sampling

A

when people actively volunteer by responding to a request which has been advertised by the researcher( in a newspaper for example) the researcher can then select those who are suitable

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79
Q

what are positives of volunteer sampling

A

consent( more ethical)

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80
Q

what are the negatives of volunteer sampling

A

only volunteer if interested( bias) , not representative( many will not see advert), bias because researcher can select

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81
Q

what is stratified/ quota sampling

A

classify the population into categories/subgroups and then choose a sample which consists of participants from each category. equal numbers are selected from a grouping. more of a group in a population so more of that group in sample. mathematically worked out

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82
Q

what are positives of stratified/quota sampling

A

representative

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83
Q

what are negatives of stratified/quota

A

time consuming

84
Q

what is systematic sampling

A

researcher numbers participants in a sampling frame and then picks their participants at a set interval, for example picking every 5th person

85
Q

what does the british psychological society do

A

it has a code that all researchers must stick to when conducting experiments . it is their professional duty to follow them and if they don’t they may lose reputation or career

86
Q

what is a cost benefit approach

A

determine whether the researchers proposals are ethically doubt to go ahead ( comes at what cost)

87
Q

what is an ethical issue ?

A

when conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goal of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile results

88
Q

what are the ethical guidelines key points

A

confidentiality, deception, consent, debrief, right to withdraw, protection of participants

89
Q

what is the way to remember ethical guidelines

A

Can
Do
Cant
Do
With
Participants

confidentiality
deception
consent
debrief
right to withdraw
protection of participants

90
Q

things to add in a consent form

A

an overview of experiment( this experiment requires you to)
any possible ethics issues
and name ….
signature….
date….

91
Q

what is confidentiality

A

protections of personal information

92
Q

what is deception

A

misleading and not telling truth or withholding info- stops demand characteristics

93
Q

what is consent

A

an agreement from participant to take part

94
Q

what is informed consent

A

information about the study and purpose of it

95
Q

what is a debrief

A

after the research- tells them what happened and what the study was for and the results

96
Q

what is right to withdraw

A

the participants can leave at any point in the experiment given as part of consent form

97
Q

what is protection of participants

A

protecting participants from psychological or physical harm- can not put you in any more harm than real life experience- have to leave the research how you start

98
Q

how to deal with informed consent

A

formally agree in writing

debrief after the study offer right to withhold data

99
Q

how to deal with deception

A

debrief after - can not stop feelings of shame

100
Q

how to deal with right to withdraw

A

emphasis at the beginning and throughout the study remind them

101
Q

how to deal with protection from harm

A

avoid risks greater than everyday life

102
Q

how to deal with confidentiality

A

no names, numbers
store information securely

103
Q

how to deal with privacy

A

do not observe without consent

104
Q

what are pilot studies

A

small scale version of an investigation that takes place before real investigation is conducted

105
Q

what is the aim of a pilot study

A

checks that procedures materials measuring scales work

106
Q

what is an example of when a pilot study is used

A

when using questionnaires or interviews- try out questions in advance and remove or reword some that are confusing

107
Q

what is single blind

A

participants not told the aim of the study as well as other details such as which condition they are or if there are conditions at all. not revealed till end ( no demand characteristics)

108
Q

what is a double blind study

A

neither the participants or the researchers are aware of the aims of the investigation. investigators can not influence participants behaviour

109
Q

what is an example of when a double blind experiment is used

A

drug trials- neither participant or investigator knows which is drug and which is placebo

110
Q

what is the control group

A

group that receives the placebo. sets the baseline for the purpose of comparison. if the change is greater in experimental group this is because of the IV

111
Q

what is quantitive data

A

data that focuses on numbers and frequencies which can be counted

112
Q

what is a positive for quantitative data

A

easy to look for trends and patterns and easy to analyse

113
Q

what is a negative for quantitative data

A

lacks detail

114
Q

what is qualitative data

A

date that describes meaning and experiences which is expressed in words ( passage of text)

115
Q

what is a positive of qualitative data

A

rich in detail and description gives valid picture of what is happening

116
Q

what are negatives of qualitative data

A

time consuming and expensive to collect

117
Q

what is a questionnaire

A

set of questions designed to collect information about a topic or topics

118
Q

what are the four different types of questions

A

open questions, closed questions, likert scales, rating scales

119
Q

what is an open question

A

participant can give any answer they wish

120
Q

what is a closed question

A

set number of responses which participants selects from

121
Q

what is a likert scale

A

a scale of responses to a question often 1-5 demonstrating a level or agreement

122
Q

what is a rating scale

A

assess the strength of à participants opinion. must identify a value that represents their strength of feeling 1-10

123
Q

what is social desirability bias

A

presenting yourself in a socially acceptable positive light

124
Q

example of a likert scale

A

i like this subject

1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree strongly dis

125
Q

what is a structured interview

A

interview questionnaires. list of questions that the researchers read out to respondent in a particular order. typically contain closed questions

126
Q

what is an unstructured interview

A

the interviewer will have some ideas and topic areas to cover but can ask any questions. makes interviews less formal and more like a conversation

127
Q

what are the advantages of questionaires with open questions

A

higher validity- respondents answer as they wish allows for new insights

128
Q

what are disadvantages of open questions

A

difficult to analyse and time consuming

129
Q

what are advantages closed questions

A

quantitative data
easy to analyse
easier to obtain large sample
easy to replicate

130
Q

what are disadvantages of closed questions

A

may not be response that actually accurately represents respondents feeling

131
Q

what are advantages or structured interviews

A

easy to repeat
easier to analyse
requires less interview skill
quantatitive data

132
Q

what are disadvantages of structured interviews

A

sample size -smaller than questionaires

133
Q

what are advantages of unstructured interviews

A

more detailed info
qualititative data

134
Q

what are disadvantages of unstructured interviews

A

require skilled interviewer
higher likelihood of interview bias

135
Q

what are non experimental methods

A

an method where there is no manipulation of variables

136
Q

what can not be established in an observation

A

cause and effect relationships

137
Q

what are the two ways that observations are used in psychological research

A

a non experimental method( entire study is an observation) or as part of another research method

138
Q

what are the 8 sub-types of observations

A

naturalistic or controlled
structured or unstructured
participant or non participant
overt or covert

139
Q

what happens in a naturalistic observation

A

behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it normally is ( eg classroom or shopping centre)

140
Q

what is a positive of a naturalistic observation

A

high external validity- realism

141
Q

what happens in a controlled observation

A

some variables are controlled by the researcher, reducing the naturalness of the behaviour being studied. ppt likely to know they are being observed and likely to be in lab

142
Q

what is a positive of a controlled observation

A

more reliable and easy to repeat

143
Q

what is the Hawthorne effect

A

when ppt change behaviour because they know they are being watched - effects external validity (realism)

144
Q

what is a participant observation and what are the P and N

A

the observer acts as part of the group
more likely to be bias but can gain more detail
may become attached

145
Q

what is a non participant observation and the P and N

A

researcher is detached, the experimenter does not become part of the group being observed (eg cctv cameras ) free from bias but less detail

146
Q

what is an overt observation

A

open observation so participant knows they are being observed and why

147
Q

what is a covert observation

A

closed- observation is kept secret from the ppts - observer undercover
ethical issues

148
Q

what is an observational design

A

now they record observation/data

149
Q

what are the different types of observational design

A

unstructured it structured

150
Q

what is an unstructured observation

A

making notes as you go along - no system
difficult to repeat or standardise

151
Q

what is a structured observation

A

when researchers has a system- uses a coding system to tally the number of times a behaviour occurs and uses sampling procedures to decide what to observe and when

152
Q

what is a coding system

A

when behaviour is operationalised by being broken into diff behavioural categories

153
Q

what are behavioural categories

A

a sub set of specific and operationalised behaviours

154
Q

what are the two different sampling procedures

A

time sampling and event sampling

155
Q

what is time sampling

A

list of behaviours but 1 person in 1 time frame

156
Q

what is event sampling

A

focuses on one behaviour only tallying that one event - continuous

157
Q

what is inter observer reliability

A

makes data recording more objective and unbiased observations are carried out by two researchers at the same time

158
Q

what are strengths of observation

A

high realism and external validity

no demand characteristics

may be more accurate and reliable

allows study variables that would be unethical

159
Q

what are the limitations to observations

A

in overt- demand characteristics

may be observer bias

sample being observed may not be accurate reflection of everyone

hard to repeat

not much control

160
Q

how is validity dealt with in observations

A

further observations in diff settings

more than one observer

double blind so no observer bias

161
Q

how is reliability dealt with in observations

A

observations should be consistent

inter observer reliability

coding system

162
Q

what is peer review

A

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication of high quality

163
Q

what things are considered in peer review

A

the report is considered in terms of validity ( is the report truthful) , significance ( is it important or with publishing) and originality ( has it been done before)

164
Q

what is the peer review process

A

researcher writes paper and submits

editor determines whether article is useful

editor sends to peers who review for quality of research

article returned to editor along with recommendation to reject or not reject article

editor decides

165
Q

what are the two variables in correlation called

A

co variables

166
Q

what is a correlation

A

a relationship between two variables-

167
Q

what is a correlation hypothesis

A

hypothesis that states the expected relationship between co variables ( eg age and beauty are positively correlated)

168
Q

what are correlation coefficients

A

a number no bigger than 1

+ or - shows whether it is a positive correlation or negative

number says how closely co variables are related

closer number to 1 means stronger

169
Q

what is a strong positive correlation: -0.6, +0.2, +0.95

A

+0.95

170
Q

when looking at correlation, what is it important to remember

A

only looks at relationship- no IV or DV

171
Q

what are advantages of correlation analysis

A

good beginnings of research

allows for predictions

no manipulation

172
Q

what are the limitations of correlation analysis

A

no cause and effect

173
Q

what is quantitative data

A

data that focuses on numbers and frequencies that can be counted- easy to obtain and read, objective and free from bias

174
Q

what is qualitative data

A

describes meaning and experiences which is expressed in words
more detailed and descriptive
time consuming and difficult to analyse

175
Q

what type of data to experiments give

A

quantitative

176
Q

what kind of data do observations give

A

qualitative and quantitative

177
Q

what type of data do self report techniques give

A

quantitative and qualitative

178
Q

what type of data do correlations give

A

quantitative

179
Q

what is primary data

A

info that has been obtained first hand by the researcher

180
Q

what is secondary data

A

info already collected by someone else so predates the current research often comes from government

181
Q

positives of primary data

A

new and relevant

directly relevant

182
Q

negatives of primary research

A

time consuming and costly

183
Q

positives of secondary data

A

easy to collect and free

184
Q

negatives of secondary data

A

could be outdated

185
Q

features of tables (displaying data)

A

raw data from findings of a study

measure of central tendency- mean median mode

measure of dispersion- range

along is row down is column

186
Q

what are the measures of central tendency

A

mean median and mode

187
Q

what are the measures of dispersion

A

range

188
Q

what are the features of a bar chart

A

discreet
data in categories
height of each bar is frequency

spaces between bars

189
Q

what are the features of histograms

A

data is continuous - no spaces between bars

eg weather and temps

190
Q

what are the features of a line graph

A

continuous
lines connect points to show how something changes

191
Q

what are the features of scattergrams

A

co variables

representation of the association between 2 co variables

192
Q

what are advantages of correlation analysis

A

good beginnings of research
allows predictions to be made
no manipulation

193
Q

what are the disadvantages of correlation analysis

A

no cause and effect

extraneous relationships

194
Q

what are the 3 types of distribution

A

normal, negatively skewed and positively skewed

195
Q

what are the features of a normal distribution

A

bell curve

mean median mode same or very similar

symmetrical spread of data

196
Q

what are the features of negatively skewed distribution

A

left foot
mean lowest
median little
mode much higher

no longer symmetrical

197
Q

factors of positively skewed distribution

A

right foot
mean is the most
mode is the lowest

data not symmetrical

198
Q

what is standard deviation

A

tells how varied ppts scored are
small dev- similar
large dev- variation

199
Q

what is one tailed

A

directional- one way it could go

200
Q

what are the three things the sign test is used for

A

to test difference

repeated measures

nominal data ( sorted into categories)

201
Q

what does the probability have to be in the sign test

A

0.05

202
Q

what things do you need to use the sign test table

A

the significance level (0.05)

the number of ppts ( minus any 0s)

whether it is one tailed or two tailed

if the calculated value is the same or less than the s value it is significant

203
Q

how do you find the calculated value in the sign test

A

count up the + and - and then take the smallest number

204
Q

what is peer review

A

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same feild

205
Q

what is the purpose and aims of peer review

A

report considered in terms of validity, significance and originality

206
Q

what is the process of peer review

A

researcher writes a paper + submits

editor determines whether it is useful

peers review it

editor

published

psychology (Q) (5 decks)

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