issues and debates Flashcards
what is gender bias
the differential treatment of male and females based on stereotypes not real differences
what is androcentrism
centred or focused on men
male behaviours and perspectives are considered the norm and female behaviour is viewed as a deviation or lesser version
what does gender bias and androcentrism lead to
alpha or beta bias
what is alpha bias and what are some examples in such research
theories that exaggerate the differences between males and females - devalues one gender
FREUD
- women are failed men
- penis envy- identity confusion
- women have weaker superegos
- makes them morally inferior
BOWLBY
- monotropy had to be female
- mothers have an innate bio predisposition to be primary caregiver
- overlooked role of father
- maternal dep blames mother
SZ MOTHER
SZ BROVERMAN- women mentally unhealthy men mentally healthy
ROLE OF HORMONES- testosterone and aggression
what is beta bias and what are examples of this in psychological research
theories that minimise or ignore the differences between male and females
often assume that findings from male samples can be applied to females
FIGHT OR FLIGHT
-carried out with male animals
- assumed response would be the same with females
- later found to tend and befriend more likely to protect offspring and form alliances with other women
- no understanding of female behaviour
SOCIAL INFLUENCE ASCH
- research into conformity
- 123 male usa
- assumed research could be applied to females
(milgram and zimbardo also)
KOHLBERG THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- based on male ppts
- ignore moral reasoning differences
LOCUS OF CONTROL
what is universality
-what is desired
- idea that psychological theories and findings apply to all humans regardless of culture social or bio difference
- if it is gender bias it is not universal
- historically research is not universal
what is the strength of identifying gender bias
identifying it as an issue has allowed psychologists to put forward a number of solutions to promote equality
- feminist psychology aims to redress the imbalances of research to counter androcentrism
- feminist psychologists like worrell have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to to avoid gender bias
- women should be studied with meaningful real life contexts and genuinely participate in research rather than being objects of a study
- diversity within women should also be examined
- has allowed positive changes and allowed females to progress further
what are the weaknesses of gender bias
NEGATIVE IMPLACATIONS
- created misleading assumptions about female behaviour
- many instances where negative female stereotypes have been validated and not challenged
- validated discriminatory practices
- provided justification to deny women opportunities within workplaces or in wider society
- not just methodological problem but damaging consequences too
CAN WORK AGAINST MALES TOO
- there are alpha biased theories that heighten the value of women
- often seen as more caring
- eg bowlby
- male mental health and toxic masculinity
- can have impact on diagnosis often either over diagnosed or not diagnosed enough
what is cultural bias
A tendency to judge all people in terms of ones own cultural assumptions
much of traditional psych represents a western bias
research methods as well as theories
what is ethnocentrism
seeing the world only from ones own culture perspective and believing this perspective is the norm and correct - superiority
what is imposed etic
applying a concept, test or theory made for one culture onto another
eg dsm and strange situation
what is cultural relativism
insists that behaviour can only be understood if the cultural context is taken into consideration -
this helps to avoid cultural bias
what are the two main examples of cultural bias in psych and why are these biased
Ainsworth
-test based on individualistic, Western culture
-Conducted in America, Ainsworth tested children’s
anxiety on separation from their primary care giver
-assumed that Ainsworth’s research
methodology could be applied all around the world
- children in other countries reacted differently
- German mothers seen as cold and rejecting
- words used to describe insecure rather than ‘type’
DSM
-escobar study (African Americans auditory hallucinations more likely to be diagnosed with SZ)
- written in USA and put onto other cultures
- causes misdiagnosis and discrimination against cultural minorities
-westernised seen as normal
what are the positives of cultural bias
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGIES
- key strength of acknowledging cultural bias is development of indigenous psychology
- studies how individuals shape and are shaped by their cultural experiences by somone who is a part of that culture
- avoids ethnocentrism and ensures cultural relativism as research is conducted within
cultures rather than imposing external perspectives
- ensures findings are more representative and promotes more inclusivity and understanding
GLOBALISATION (more of a debate)
- increased globalisation and interconnectedness, the issue of cultural bias in research may be less
pronounced today
- traditional view that individualist cultures (e.g., the U.S.) prioritise independence while collectivist
cultures (e.g., Japan) emphasise group has been challenged in contemporary society
- urban areas of Japan becoming more similar to western culture
-suggests that cultural differences may not be as rigid as once thought, meaning modern psychological
research is potentially less affected by cultural bias than historical research.
what is the negative of cultural bias
NEGATIVE IMPLACATIONS
-has historically contributed to
prejudice and discrimination of ethnic minority groups.
- early intelligence tests in the U.S where ethnocentric
- assumed all cultural groups had knowledge of American cultural references
- ethnic minorities particularly those from southeastern Europe and African American communities, scored
lower, leading to the justification of discriminatory policies
- unfairly labelled as less intelligent and were denied educational and professional opportunities
-demonstrates how cultural bias in research can have
severe real-world consequences, reinforcing stereotypes and systemic inequalities
what is determinism
idea that all behaviour is governed by forces out of our control
what is hard determinism
all behaviour has a cause
forces outside of control completely shape our behaviour (incompatible with free will)
what is soft determinism
behaviour is constrained by external forces but there is still an element of free will in behaviour
what is biological determinism
the idea that all behaviour is caused by our genes
• genetic
• hormonal
• neural
• evolutionary
what are the examples of biological determinism
psychopathology - candidate genes like COMT + SERT genes cause vulnerability to OCD - people with first degree relative with OCD 5x more likely to develop
forensics - agresszion and MAOA. gene said to cause offending due to increased aggression
what is environmental determinism
idea that all behaviour is caused by environment and past experiences and learnt behaviour
- classical conditioning
what are the examples of environmental determinism
psychopathology- mowrers two process model - phobias are acquired thought classical conditioning and maintained through operant eg little albert
forensics- differential association linking to bandura
what is psychic determinism
the idea that behaviour is the result of childhood experience and innate drives within our subconscious
what is the example for psychic determinism
psychodynamic- freud saw human behaviour as determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood as a result of childhood experiences
- fixations
- defence mechanisms
sz mother
why is determinism compatible with scientific approach
- makes psych more scientific
- if all behaviour has a cause we can establish cause and effect
- IV is manipulated to observe the causal effect on DV ( all EVs removed)
what is free will
the idea that we play an active role and have choice in the way we behave
individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined
- not compatible with scientific as no cause and effect as individuals have autonomy and all behave differently
what is the example of free will
humanistic - believe in free will
maslow stated people are motivated to achieve certain needs where free will is necessary for self actualisation
what two evaluation points are a weakness the argument of determinism
NO BEHAVIOUR IS COMPLETELY BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINED
- a problem with both genetic and env determinism is neither can be sole determining factor
- MZ twins share 100% of genes
- studies compare mz twins find 48% concordance for sz
- saying this is solely deterministic limits other treatment
- remaining % must be external forces
- emphasises importance of interactionist approach
- limits consideration of other treatments
DETERMINISM CAN PROVIDE AN EXCUSE FOR IMMORAL BEHAVIOUR
- most legal experts in the real world do not favour determinist view
- if behaviour is determined by outside provides an excuse for crime
- mobely defence- argued that he was born to kill after killing pizza shop manager because family had a disposition towards violence and aggression (rejected by American court)
- hard determinism position undesirable as it allows people to mitigate own liability and could lead to legal issues regarding nature of responsibility
what two evaluation points are a weakness the argument of free will
FREE WILL IS AN ILLUSION
- just being able to decide between different courses of actions is not free will but may give us an illusion
- argument put forward by skinner
- people may choose to wear certain clothes and feel that this is free will however the clothes are picked out because you have been complimented on them
- suggests free will is a product of socialisation not something real
COG NEUROSCIENCE CHALLENGES FREE WILL
- brain scans do not support it but support determinism
- researcher instructed people to choose moment to flick wrist whilst they measured activity in brain
- ppts say when they felt unconscious will to move
- brain activity leading up to decision came half a second before they decided
- even most basic experiences for free will are determined by our brain before we are aware
what does the nature nurture debate look at
- the extent to which nature and nurture are responsible and how they react
- relative importance of both
what is the definition of ‘nature’
- the view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors
- descartes argue that all human characteristics are innate
- deterministic view would be that all behaviour is from innate factors
what is the definition of hereditary in nature or nurture
- the genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another
- heritability coefficient- used to assess heredity. numerical figure between 0 and 1 which indicates extent to which they have a genetic basis
what is the example of genetic explanations
Joseph- sz has concordance rate of 40% for MZ and 7% DZ
suggests that nature is a contributing factor
what is the example of evolutionary explanations
behaviour promotes survival
- bowlby- proposed that attachment was adaptive because meant that infant more likely to be protected and more likely to survive
what is the definition of nurture
- influence of experience and environment
- John locke - mind is a blank slate at birth and then shaped by environment
- acquired from interaction with physical and social world
what are the examples of the influence of nurture
bandura- social learning theory states aggression is learnt through observation and imitation
skinner - behaviour is learnt from others via behaviour shaping techniques
what is the evaluation for nature vs nurture
DIATHESIS STRESS - INTERACTIONIST
- shouldn’t be seen as separate
- suggests individual may have nature (genetic predisposition) but only manifest when triggered by nurture
-eg sz run in families but trauma plays role in development
NATURE AFFECTS NURTURE
- plomin- genes may exert an indirect effect in a number of ways known as niche picking
- individuals inherit traits influence way we interact and respond with environment
- child genetically more aggressive may provoke aggressive response
- child with naturally high intelligence may seek intellectually stimulating activities
reinforces genetic influence
NURTURE AFFECTS NATURE
-maguire- research into London taxi drivers
- brains plasticity and highlights how experiences and learning can shape biological structures in the brain supporting nurture driven perspective
what is reductionism
the belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the smaller parts and breaking it down into simpler components
what are levels of explanation
the idea that there are several ways that can be used to explain behaviour
- lowest level considers physiological/ biological explanations
- middle level looks at psychological explanations
- highest level considers social and cultural explanations
what are the levels of explanation for sz
lowest - dopamine hypothesis( reduces disorder down)
middle- family dysfunction ( double bind, EE, sz mother)
highest- urban area more likely to cause sz
what are the three types of reductionism
biological, environmental, experimental
what is biological reductionism
- reduce behaviour to physical level
- explains it in terms of neurons, hormones, brain structure, genes
- eg OCD worry circuit
what is environmental reductionism
behavuourism
- reduce behaviour down to a stimulus response
- eliminates any emotional response or thought process
- phobias- little albert
what is experimental reductionism
reduces complex behaviours to isolate variables as a useful strategy for conducting research
anything lab based
what is holism
argues that it only makes sense to study system as a whole rather than its smaller parts
what is gestalt psychology
adopts a holistic approach to perception
when we perceive something in real life, we look at it as a whole rather than collection of small parts
what is the approach that takes in the holistic approach
humanistic
- argues that humans react to stimuli as an organised whole rather than set of stimulus
- looks at a persons unified identity
what are reasearch methods used in a holistic approach
qualitative
case studies
unstructured interviews
what is the eval for Holistic vs reductionist
PRACCY APP
- holism lacks praccy app
- too complex and becomes difficult to know what factor is most influential
- eg mental health becomes hard to know what to treat
- reductionism has praccy app
- simplifying and isolating explanations for behaviour has lead to success of treatments
- eg low serotonin from SERT gene leads to development of SSRIs
OVER SIMPLIFACATION
- reductionist criticised for oversimplifying
- overlooks complexities of human behaviour
- eg dollard + miller- reduce human attachment down to basic stimulus response
- applying basic explanations to humans overlooks complexities of cognitive and emotional social factors that influence
SCIENTIFIC
- reductionist often form basis of scientific approach
- established cause and effect
- reduces EVs making it objective
- standardised and high internal validity so scientific cred
- holistic approach has been accused of lacking validity
- lacks scientific cred and isn’t generalisable
- small sample case study research
- can not replicate due to lack of control
- makes reductionist explanations more useful
what is the idiographic approach
approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour
emphasises unique personal experience of human behaviour
qualitatively data
what methods are used with the idiographic approach
case studies
unstructured interviews
open questions
thematic analysis
what is an example of the idiographic approach
KF- experienced motorbike accident
forgetting of auditory info was greater than the visual info
suggested there were multiple STM components
case study exposed issue with MSM and led to development of WMM
what is the nomothetic approach
aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws applicable to everyone
identifies similarities
what methods are used in the nomothetic approach
closed questionnaires
experiments
correlational research
what is an example of a nomothetic approach
behavioural approach
- pavlov and skinner conduct experiments with animals in order to establish laws of learning
- could be generalised to humans and non humans
which approach out of nomothetic and idiographic is objective
nomothetic
what is a strength of the idiographic approach
HAS CONTRIBUTED TO NOMOTHETIC
- uses an in depth qualitative method of investigation
- may compliment the nomothetic approach by shedding light on general laws or challenging laws
- KF exposed a limitation of MsM by providing evidence for two stores of STM
- single case study can generate further research into area contributing to development of new theories
- pebble that starts avalanche
- useful when used with nomothetic
what is a weakness of the idiographic approach
UNABLE TP PRODUCE GENERAL LAWS AND UNSCIENTIFIC
- not generalisable due to a small sample
- not scientific in nature
- un useful as sole approach
- not reliable (qualitative methods are hard to analyse and standardise
- not internally valid too subjective
- questions real use of idiographic on its own
what is a strength of the nomothetic approach
SCIENTIFIC AND USEFUL FOR PREDICTING AND CONTROLLING BEHAVIOUR
- large samples are generalisable
- studies are scientific in nature
- gives more real world app
- quantitative data easy to analyse
- objective
- SS has inter rather reliability of +.94
-allows psychologists to replicate research
- helped psychology establish itself ad a scientific discipline
- more praccy app
- successful therapy + treatments
what is a weakness of the nomothetic approach
LOSES THE WHOLE PERSON AND FAILS TO ACCOUNT FOR INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCES
- loss of understanding of individual
- preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means its accused of losing the person
- eg knowing 1% lifetime risk of SZ tells us little about what life is like with disorder
- understanding subjective experience may be useful when looking at treatment options
- lacks empathy and understanding
what are ethical implications
the impact and consequences of research findings on the rights of others in a wider context
can directly affect ppts but also public and society
what is socially sensitive research
studies in which there is potential consequences or implications either for ppts or for a class of individuals
can lead to the justification for way group is treated and perceived
what are the stages of the research process where social sensitivity should be considered
PROPOSING A QUESTION - avoid leading questions and avoid questions that pinpoint a particular group
CHOOSING A METHOD - keeping confidentiality in small samples and case studies
INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT-
could be only published reasearch that paints in a good light - bias
INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF FINDINGS - could data or results inform policy
what are some examples of socially sensitive research in other topics
SOCIAL INFLUENCE-
milgram- implication on ppts now have to process how they would have killed someone due to authority telling them to do so
ATTACHMENT- bowlby- good application to child care but maternal dep blames mother and monotropy meant women can’t return to work and take a more subordinate role in society
SZ- family dysfunction blames the family
MAOA GENE- changes justice system and no longer responsible for crime
what are the two strengths of SSR
REAL LIFE APPLICATION TO SOCIAL POLICY
- society relies on it
- gov looks to research when developing important social policies on child care, crime , education and mental health
- social sensitivity of bio factors in mental health has lead to the successful use of drug therapy
- psychologists have important role to play for benefits of society
SSR CAN BE BENEFICIAL FOR SOME SOCIAL GROUPS
- homosexuality
- kinsley report based on anonymous interviews with 5000 men about sexual behaviour
- concluded homosexuality is a normal variant of human sexual behaviour
- cause removal of homosexuality from DSM in 1973
- illustrates importance of researchers in tacking sensitive topics
what are the two weaknesses of SSR
RESEARCH INTO EDUCATIONAL POLICIES HAS NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES
- burt- inherit ability of genetics suggested intelligence could be detected at 11
influenced governments introduction of 11+ exam determining child school and future outcomes
Peter found to be made up and discredited
still has significant impact on life chances of children and educational outcomes
SOME RESEARCH FINDINFS NEED CAREFUL CONSIDERATION BEFORE PUBLICATION
reset investigating genetic basis of criminality found that that is a criminal gene
Mobley defence believed he was responsible for crimes due to being biologically predetermined to killer
If this is true someone could be convicted on basis that they have the gene or may not be responsible for wrongdoing
When researching SSR topics there is needed for careful consideration of outcome
