Research Methods Flashcards
Validity
Whether something is true – measures what it sets out to measure.
Concurrent Validity
Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results.
If they do then the new test has concurrent validity
Face Validity
Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value – e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence.
Test-retest Reliability
Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Reliability
Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable.
Ecological Validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings
External Validity
Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting.
Inter-rater/observer Reliability
The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
Internal Validity
In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics.
Temporal Validity
Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time
Peer Review
Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems
Pilot Study
A small-scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made.
Case Study
In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
Content Analysis
Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data.
Thematic Analysis
A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
Skewed Distribution
An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered to one end of the distribution
Positive Skew
Mode < Median < Mean
Negative Skew
Mode > Median > Mean
Qualitative Data
Descriptive information that is expressed in words
Quantitative Data
Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.
Types of Observation
Covert or Overt
Naturalistic or Controlled
Participant or Non-Participant
Covert or Overt
Do the participants know that they’re being observed?
Demand characteristics
Naturalistic or Controlled
Is the researcher controlling the environment?
Extraneous variables, ecological validity
Participant or Non-Participant
Is the researcher part of the group they are researching?
Qualitative data, deeper understanding
Have to remember info, can’t write down
Laboratory Experiment
Experiment in controlled environment, standardised procedures
Can determine cause and effect, replicable
Lacks ecological validity, demand characteristics
Field Experiment
Study in a natural setting, most participants don’t know they’re being observed
Ecological validity, cause and effect
Confounding variables, ethical issues
Quasi Experiment
Researcher does not manipulate an IV, it is naturally occurring. Cannot allocate participants themselves
Enables investigation of variables that can’t be manipulated
Confounding variables, cause and effect can’t be concluded
Natural Experiment
Researcher takes advantage of a natural occurrence to produce a changing independent variable.
Ecological validity, can study things that can’t be manipulated
Confounding variables, cause and effect
Repeated Measures
Same participants are used in each condition
Participant variables are controlled, fewer participants are needed
Order effects (counterbalancing used), demand characteristics
Independent Groups
Each participant is used in one condition only
No order effects, less likely demand characteristics
Participant variables, more participants needed
Matched Pairs
Different participants used for each condition, but are matched in pairs based on various criteria and split up.
Same pros as IG and RM
But very time consuming, can never match perfectly
Bar Chart
A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.
Behavioural Categories
Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record
Closed Questions
Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data
Confidentiality
Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
Confounding Variable
An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV
Control Group
A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally).
Correlational Analysis
A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related
Counterbalancing
A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A
Critical Value
The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted.
Debriefing
After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.
Demand Characteristics
Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome.
Descriptive Statistics
Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way
Dispersion Measure
A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation
Double Blind Control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.
Ethical Guidelines
These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.
Ethical Issues
There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research – deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants.
Evaluation Apprehension
Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers
Event Sampling
A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
Extraneous Variable
Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn’t.
Histogram
A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous.
Independent Variable
The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are ways of analysing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results.
Informed Consent
Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part
Interval Level Data
Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
Investigator Effects
These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation.
Measures of Central Tendency
A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode
Meta Analysis
A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted
Nominal Level Data
Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t).
Observer Bias
Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
Open Questions
Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data.
Operationalising Variables
This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).
Opportunity Sample
Participants are chosen because they are easily available
Easy
Not representative
Order Effects
Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task
Ordinal Level Data
Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness).
Presumptive Consent
Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would
Primary Data
Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation
Prior General Consent
Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation
Protection from Harm
Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life
Random Sampling
Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Less bias, more representative
Can’t be truly random
Randomisation
Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin’ to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation
Representative Sample
A sample that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
Retrospective Consent
Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.
Scattergram
Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them.
Secondary Data
Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics
Semi-structured Interview
Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant
Sign Test
A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions
Significance
If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
Single-blind Control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research
Social Desirability Bias
Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.
Standardised Instructions
The instructions given to each participant are kept identical – to help prevent experimenter bias.
Standardised Procedures
In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience.
Stratified Sample
Groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Less bias, more representative
Difficult to define strata
Structured Interview
Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
Structured Observation
An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants’ behaviour
Systematic Sample
Every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Less bias, more representative
A biased list will make biased results
Time Sampling
A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals.
Type I error
Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false
Type II Error
Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false
Unstructured Interview
Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general aims and it is more like a conversation
Unstructured Observation
Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible
Volunteer Sample
Participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
Less likely to withdraw, easy
Not representative, volunteer bias
