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Psychology Paper 2 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Validity

A

Whether something is true – measures what it sets out to measure.

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2
Q

Concurrent Validity

A

Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results.
If they do then the new test has concurrent validity

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3
Q

Face Validity

A

Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value – e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence.

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4
Q

Test-retest Reliability

A

Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two

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5
Q

Reliability

A

Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable.

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6
Q

Ecological Validity

A

The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings

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7
Q

External Validity

A

Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting.

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8
Q

Inter-rater/observer Reliability

A

The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way

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9
Q

Internal Validity

A

In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics.

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10
Q

Temporal Validity

A

Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time

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11
Q

Peer Review

A

Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems

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12
Q

Pilot Study

A

A small-scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made.

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13
Q

Case Study

A

In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).

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14
Q

Content Analysis

A

Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data.

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15
Q

Thematic Analysis

A

A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data

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16
Q

Skewed Distribution

A

An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered to one end of the distribution

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17
Q

Positive Skew

A

Mode < Median < Mean

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18
Q

Negative Skew

A

Mode > Median > Mean

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19
Q

Qualitative Data

A

Descriptive information that is expressed in words

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20
Q

Quantitative Data

A

Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.

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21
Q

Types of Observation

A

Covert or Overt
Naturalistic or Controlled
Participant or Non-Participant

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22
Q

Covert or Overt

A

Do the participants know that they’re being observed?
Demand characteristics

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23
Q

Naturalistic or Controlled

A

Is the researcher controlling the environment?
Extraneous variables, ecological validity

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24
Q

Participant or Non-Participant

A

Is the researcher part of the group they are researching?
Qualitative data, deeper understanding
Have to remember info, can’t write down

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25
Q

Laboratory Experiment

A

Experiment in controlled environment, standardised procedures
Can determine cause and effect, replicable
Lacks ecological validity, demand characteristics

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26
Q

Field Experiment

A

Study in a natural setting, most participants don’t know they’re being observed
Ecological validity, cause and effect
Confounding variables, ethical issues

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27
Q

Quasi Experiment

A

Researcher does not manipulate an IV, it is naturally occurring. Cannot allocate participants themselves
Enables investigation of variables that can’t be manipulated
Confounding variables, cause and effect can’t be concluded

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28
Q

Natural Experiment

A

Researcher takes advantage of a natural occurrence to produce a changing independent variable.
Ecological validity, can study things that can’t be manipulated
Confounding variables, cause and effect

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29
Q

Repeated Measures

A

Same participants are used in each condition
Participant variables are controlled, fewer participants are needed
Order effects (counterbalancing used), demand characteristics

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30
Q

Independent Groups

A

Each participant is used in one condition only
No order effects, less likely demand characteristics
Participant variables, more participants needed

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31
Q

Matched Pairs

A

Different participants used for each condition, but are matched in pairs based on various criteria and split up.
Same pros as IG and RM
But very time consuming, can never match perfectly

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32
Q

Bar Chart

A

A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.

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33
Q

Behavioural Categories

A

Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record

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34
Q

Closed Questions

A

Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data

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35
Q

Confidentiality

A

Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.

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36
Q

Confounding Variable

A

An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV

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37
Q

Control Group

A

A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally).

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38
Q

Correlational Analysis

A

A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related

39
Q

Counterbalancing

A

A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A

40
Q

Critical Value

A

The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted.

41
Q

Debriefing

A

After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.

42
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way.

43
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome.

44
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way

45
Q

Dispersion Measure

A

A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation

46
Q

Double Blind Control

A

Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.

47
Q

Ethical Guidelines

A

These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.

48
Q

Ethical Issues

A

There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research – deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants.

49
Q

Evaluation Apprehension

A

Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers

50
Q

Event Sampling

A

A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs

51
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn’t.

52
Q

Histogram

A

A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous.

53
Q

Independent Variable

A

The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).

54
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Inferential statistics are ways of analysing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results.

55
Q

Informed Consent

A

Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part

56
Q

Interval Level Data

A

Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale

57
Q

Investigator Effects

A

These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation.

58
Q

Measures of Central Tendency

A

A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode

59
Q

Meta Analysis

A

A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted

60
Q

Nominal Level Data

A

Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t).

61
Q

Observer Bias

A

Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations

62
Q

Open Questions

A

Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data.

63
Q

Operationalising Variables

A

This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).

64
Q

Opportunity Sample

A

Participants are chosen because they are easily available
Easy
Not representative

65
Q

Order Effects

A

Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task

66
Q

Ordinal Level Data

A

Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness).

67
Q

Presumptive Consent

A

Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would

68
Q

Primary Data

A

Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation

69
Q

Prior General Consent

A

Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation

70
Q

Protection from Harm

A

Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life

71
Q

Random Sampling

A

Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Less bias, more representative
Can’t be truly random

72
Q

Randomisation

A

Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin’ to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation

73
Q

Representative Sample

A

A sample that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics

74
Q

Retrospective Consent

A

Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.

75
Q

Scattergram

A

Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them.

76
Q

Secondary Data

A

Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics

77
Q

Semi-structured Interview

A

Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant

78
Q

Sign Test

A

A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions

79
Q

Significance

A

If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance

80
Q

Single-blind Control

A

Participants are not told the true purpose of the research

81
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.

82
Q

Standardised Instructions

A

The instructions given to each participant are kept identical – to help prevent experimenter bias.

83
Q

Standardised Procedures

A

In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience.

84
Q

Stratified Sample

A

Groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Less bias, more representative
Difficult to define strata

85
Q

Structured Interview

A

Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses

86
Q

Structured Observation

A

An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants’ behaviour

87
Q

Systematic Sample

A

Every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Less bias, more representative
A biased list will make biased results

88
Q

Time Sampling

A

A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals.

89
Q

Type I error

A

Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false

90
Q

Type II Error

A

Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false

91
Q

Unstructured Interview

A

Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general aims and it is more like a conversation

92
Q

Unstructured Observation

A

Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible

93
Q

Volunteer Sample

A

Participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
Less likely to withdraw, easy
Not representative, volunteer bias

Psychology Paper 2 (3 decks)

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