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Mollie's AP Psych > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

Use these cards to study different research methods of psychology, including experiments and correlational research. The AP Psych exam devotes 8-10% of its multiple choice questions to the content in this deck.

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1
Q

Define:

scientific method

A

general procedures psychologists use for gathering and interpreting data

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2
Q

Define theory as it relates to research methods.

A

organized, testable explanation of phenomena

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3
Q

Other researchers must be able to replicate the results of an experiment to validate its conclusions.

What is replication?

A

obtaining similar results to a previous study using the same methods

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4
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

explaining why something happened after it has occurs

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5
Q

What is a controlled experiment?

A

researchers systematically manipulate a variable and observe the response in a laboratory

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6
Q

Define:

hypothesis

A

prediction of how two or more factors are related

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7
Q

What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an experiment?

A

The factor being manipulated is the independent variable. The factor being measured is the dependent variable.

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8
Q

Identify the independent and dependent variables:

If students use Brainscape to study, rather than simple flash cards, then they will get higher test scores.

A
  • independent: method of studying
  • dependent: test score
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9
Q

Define population as it relates to research methods.

A

all the individuals to which the study applies

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10
Q

Define sample as it relates to research methods.

A

subgroup of a population that constitutes participants of a study

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11
Q

What type of sample should be used in research?

A

Larger sample sizes are ideal because they are the most representative of the population.

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12
Q

The amount of difference between the sample and population is called __________.

A

sampling error

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13
Q

Define random selection as it relates to research methods.

A

every individual from a population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample

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14
Q

Which individuals are in the experimental group?

A

subjects who receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable

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15
Q

Which individuals are in the control group?

A

subjects who do not receive any treatment or manipulation

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16
Q

Subjects who receive the treatment are part of the __________, while those who do not receive the treatment belong to the __________.

A

experimental group; control group

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17
Q

What type of experimental design uses experimental and control groups?

A

A between-subjects design uses an experimental group and a control group to compare the effect of the independent variable.

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18
Q

What process is used to ensure there are no preexisting differences between the control group and the experimental group?

A

Random assignment fairly divides the sample participants into the two groups.

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19
Q

Define:

confounding variable

A
  • any difference between the experimental group and the control group, besides the effect of the independent variable
  • a.k.a. third variable
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20
Q

List four types of confounding variables.

A
  1. experimenter bias
  2. demand characteristics
  3. placebo effect
  4. lack of counterbalancing
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21
Q

Define experimenter bias as it relates to confounding variables.

A

Experimenter bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the results of the study influence the experiment.

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22
Q

Define demand characteristics as they relate to confounding variables.

A

clues the participants discover about the intention of the study that alter their responses

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23
Q

Define placebo effect as it relates to confounding variables.

A

responding to an inactive drug with a change in behavior because the subject believes it contains the active ingredient

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24
Q

Define counterbalancing as it relates to confounding variables.

A

Researchers using a within-subjects design eliminate the effects of treatment order by assigning half the participants to treatment A first and the other half to treatment B first.

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25
Q

What type of experimental design uses each participant as his/her own control?

A

A within-subjects design exposes each participant to the treatment and compares their pre-test and post-test results. This design can also compare the results of two different treatments administered.

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26
Q

How do researchers specifically define what variables mean?

A

Researchers use operational definitions to precisely describe variables in relation to their study. For example, “effectiveness of studying” can be operationally defined with a test score.

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27
Q

What is a single-blind procedure?

A

research design in which the subjects are unaware if they are in the control or experimental group

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28
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

research design in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects are aware who is in the control or experimental group

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29
Q

Single-blind procedures aim to eliminate the effects of __________, while double-blind procedures use a third party researcher to omit the effects of __________.

A

demand characteristics; experimenter bias

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30
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

individuals who are being experimented on behave differently than in their everyday life

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31
Q

How are quasi-experiments different from controlled experiments?

A

Random assignment is not possible in quasi-experiments.

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32
Q

What types of research are considered quasi-experiments?

A

Differences in behavior between:

  • males and females
  • various age groups
  • students in different classes
33
Q

Define:

correlational research

A
  • establishes a relationship between two variables
  • does not determine cause and effect
  • used to make predictions and generate future research
34
Q

List three types of correlational research.

A
  1. naturalistic observation
  2. surveys
  3. tests
35
Q

Define naturalistic observation as it relates to correlational research.

A

Naturalistic observation consists of field observation of naturally occuring behavior, such as the way students behave in the classroom. There is no manipulation of variables.

36
Q

What are surveys and why are they not always accurate?

A
  • type of correlational research
  • questionnaires and interviews given to a large group of people about their thoughts or behavior
  • individuals aim to be politically correct and socially accepted, leading them to give false answers
37
Q

Define tests as they relate to correlational research.

A

research method that measures individual traits at a specific time and place

38
Q

__________ studies start by looking at an effect and then attempt to determine the cause.

A

Ex post facto

39
Q

What is the difference between the reliability and validity of a test?

A

A test is reliable if it is consistent and repeatable. A test is valid if it measures the content it intends to.

40
Q

What is a case study?

A
  • detailed examination of one person or a small group
  • beneficial for understanding rare and complex phenomena in clinical research
  • not always representative of the larger population
41
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method?

experiments

A

Strengths:

  • determine cause and effect relationship between variables
  • control over confounding variables

Weaknesses:

  • no real-world generalizability
  • expensive
  • time-consuming
42
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method?

correlational research

A

Strengths:

  • easy to administer surveys or tests
  • inexpensive
  • minimal time needed
  • substantial real-world generalizability

Weaknesses:

  • no control over confounding variables
  • skewed or biased results
  • establishes a relationship, not causation
43
Q

Define:

statistics

A

analysis of numerical data regarding representative samples

44
Q

__________ data includes numerical measurements and __________ data includes descriptive words.

A

Quantitative; qualitative

45
Q

What are the four scales of measurement?

A
  1. nominal
  2. ordinal
  3. interval
  4. ratio
46
Q

Define:

nominal scale

A

numbers have no meaning except as labels

Example:

Girls are designated as 1 and boys are designated as 2.

47
Q

Define:

ordinal scale

A

numbers are used as ranks

Example:

The highest score is designated as 1, second highest as 2, third highest as 3, and so on.

48
Q

Define:

interval scale

A

numbers that have a meaningful difference between them

Example:

Temperature: The difference between 10°F and 20°F is the same as between 30°F and 40°F.

49
Q

Define:

ratio scale

A

numbers that have a meaningful ratio between them on a scale with a real zero point

Example:

Weight and height: If you weight zero pounds, you have no weight. 100 pounds is twice as heavy as 50 pounds.

50
Q

Would temperature be measured on an interval scale or a ratio scale?

A

interval

If the temperature is 0°F, there is not “no temperature.” There is not a meaningful ratio between values. 100°F is not twice as hot as 50°F.

51
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

numbers that summarize a set of research data from a sample

52
Q

Define:

frequency distribution

A

an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score

53
Q

What is the difference between a histogram and a frequency polygon?

A

A histogram is a bar graph and a frequency polygon is a line graph or a bell curve.

54
Q

Define and list the three types of:

central tendency

A

Measures of central tendency describe the most typical scores for a set of research data.

  1. mode
  2. median
  3. mean
55
Q

Define in terms of central tendency:

mode

A

most frequently occurring score in the data set

56
Q

Define in terms of central tendency:

median

A

the middle score when the data is ordered by size

57
Q

Define in terms of central tendency:

mean

A

arithmetic average of the scores in the data set

58
Q

If two scores appear most frequently, the distribution is __________, and if there are three or more appearing most frequently, it is __________.

A

bimodal; multimodal

59
Q

Which measure of central tendency is the most representative? The least representative?

A
  • mean is usually most representative, unless there are extreme outliers that pull the mean in a particular direction
  • median is less sensitive to outliers, but is a weak statistic
  • mode is the least representative
60
Q

Define:

normal distribution

A

bell-shaped, symmetric curve that represents data about many human characteristics throughout the population

61
Q

When most of the scores are compacted on one side of the bell curve, the distribution is said to be __________.

A

skewed

Positively skewed distributions include a lot of small values and negatively skewed distributions include a lot of large values.

62
Q

Define and list the three types of:

measures of variablity

A

Measures of variability describe the dispersion of scores for a set of research data.

  1. range
  2. variance
  3. standard deviation
63
Q

Define in terms of variability:

range

A

difference between the largest score and the smallest score

64
Q

What do variance and standard deviation measure?

A

average difference between each score and the mean of the data set

Taller, narrow curves have less variance than short, wider curves.

65
Q

What is a z score (a.k.a. standard score)?

A
  • allows for comparison between different scales
  • subtract mean from each score and divide by standard deviation
  • mean has a z score of zero
66
Q

Define:

percentile score

A

percentage of scores at or below a particular score between 1 and 99

Example:

If you are in the 70th percentile, 70% of the scores are the same as or below yours.

67
Q

Define:

Pearson correlation coefficient

A
  • statistical linear measure of the relationship between two sets of data
  • varies from -1 to +1
  • helps to make predictions about variables
68
Q

Name the correlation coefficient for each and describe the relationship:

  1. perfect positive correlation
  2. no relationship
  3. perfect negative correlation
A
  1. r = +1
    direct relationship: as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the same
  2. r = 0
    no relationship
  3. r = -1
    inverse relationship: as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the opposite
69
Q

What type of graph plots single points to show the strength and direction of correlations?

A

scatterplot

70
Q

What is the term for the line on a scatterplot that follows the trend of the points?

A

line of best fit or regression line

71
Q

Define:

inferential statistics

A
  • used to interpret data and draw conclusions
  • indicate generalizability to population
  • indicate real relationship, not due to chance
72
Q

What is the difference between a null and an alternative hypothesis?

A

Null hypotheses state that a treatment had no effect, while alternative hypotheses state the treatment did have an effect in the experiment.

73
Q

What is the difference between a Type I and Type II error?

A

Type I errors, or false positives, occur if the researcher rejects a true null hypothesis. Type II errors, or false negatives, occur if the researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis.

74
Q

The variable p represents __________.

A

statistical significance

75
Q

When is a finding statistically significant?

A

when the probability (alpha) that the finding is due to chance is less than 1 in 20 (p < 0.05)

76
Q

What method statistically combines the results of several research studies to reach a conclusion?

A

meta-analysis

77
Q

Why did the American Psychological Association (APA) implement ethical guidelines?

A
  • Guidelines were set in place in the late 20th century to stress responsibility and morality in research and clinical practice
  • Dangerous and inhumane experiments such as Harlow’s rhesus monkeys, Zimbardo’s prison role-playing, and Milgram’s shock test led to the implementation of rules
78
Q

What are the purposes of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A
  • approve research being conducted at their particular institution
  • require participants give informed consent after hearing the risks and procedures
  • require debriefing of participants afterward with results of research
  • ensure humane and ethical treatment of animal and human subjects
79
Q

__________ psychology is practical and designed for real world application, while __________ psychology is focused on research of fundamental principles and theories.

A

Applied; basic

Mollie's AP Psych (5 decks)

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