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Mollie's AP Psych > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

Use this deck to study concepts about learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive processes. The AP Psych exam devotes 7-9% of its multiple choice questions to the content in this deck.

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1
Q

Define:

learning

A

relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience

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2
Q

What are the three types of learning?

A
  1. classical conditioning
  2. operant conditioning
  3. cognitive learning
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3
Q

Define:

classical conditioning

A

learning that takes place when two stimuli, one conditioned and one unconditioned, are presented together to induce a response

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4
Q

Define acquisition as it relates to classical conditioning.

A

passively learning to give a known response to a new stimulus

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5
Q

Define stimulus as it relates to classical conditioning.

A

change in the environment that brings about a response

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6
Q

Define response as it relates to classical conditioning.

A

reaction to a stimulus

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7
Q

Stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior are called __________.

A

reinforcers

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8
Q

Identify the stimulus and the response:

When you put food in your mouth, you salivate.

A
  • stimulus: food
  • response: salivation
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9
Q

What was the premise of Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment?

A

Dogs salivate at the sight of food because they form associations with food and events preceding eating the food. Pavlov sounded a bell right before presenting food, so the dogs would ultimately salivate at the sound of the bell.

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10
Q

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

neutral stimulus (NS)

A

stimulus that initially does not elicit a response until it becomes CS

Pavlov’s example:

The NS is the bell because it does not produce salivation until it is paired with the food.

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11
Q

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

A

reflexively, automatically brings about a response

Pavlov’s example:

Food is the UCS because it automatically brings about salivation.

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12
Q

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

A

automatic, involuntary reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s example:

The UCR is salivation because the dogs automatically salivate when they eat food.

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13
Q

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

starts as neutral stimulus, but when paired with UCS, eventually brings about the conditioned response

Pavlov’s example:

The CS is the bell because, when paired with the food, it brought about salivation.

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14
Q

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

conditioned response (CR)

A

learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Pavlov’s example:

Salivation is the CR because the dog learned to salivate in response to the bell.

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15
Q

How is delayed conditioning timed?

A

neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s example:

The bell rings just before food is presented.

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16
Q

How is trace conditioning timed?

A

neutral stimulus is presented and then taken away before the unconditioned stimulus appears

Pavlov’s example:

Bell rings, followed by a long time lapse, then food is presented.

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17
Q

How is simultaneous conditioning timed?

A

neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented together at the same time

Pavlov’s example:

The bell rings and food is presented at the same time.

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18
Q

How is backward conditioning timed?

A

unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus

Pavlov’s example:

Food is presented before the bell rings.

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19
Q

What researcher(s) were behind the Baby Albert experiment?

A

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner

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20
Q

Explain the Baby Albert classical conditioning experiment.

A
  • conditioned a nine-month-old baby named Albert to fear a rat
  • Albert wouldn’t cry from the sight of the rat, but cried from loud noise
  • loud noise was played when Baby Albert reached for the rat
  • Albert eventually cried at sight of the rat
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21
Q

Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the Baby Albert experiment.

A
  • UCS: loud noise
  • UCR: fear
  • CS: white rat
  • CR: fear
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22
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

extinction

A

elimination of the CR through presenting the CS without the UCS repeatedly

Pavlov’s example: ring bell without food, dog will not salivate from bell

Baby Albert: present rat without loud noise, baby will not cry from rat

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23
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

spontaneous recovery

A

original response disappears and then returns later on

Pavlov’s example: salivation from bell stops and then returns

Baby Albert: baby stops crying from presence of rat and then begins again

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24
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

generalization

A

stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR without any new conditioning

Pavlov’s example: dog salivates from bells with different tones, pitches, or lengths

Baby Albert: baby cries from other white fluffy stimuli, such as white bunnies or cotton balls

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25
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

discrimination

A

CR is only produced by the presence of the CS because other stimuli is too dissimilar

Pavlov’s example: dog will not salivate to a doorbell or telephone ring

Baby Albert: baby will not cry at presence of a black rat

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26
Q

What is higher-order (a.k.a. second-order) conditioning?

A

learning which occurs when a previously learned CS is now used as the US to produce a CR to a new stimulus

Example:

Flashing a light before Pavlov’s bell would train the dogs to salivate from only the light.

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27
Q

Define:

operant conditioning

A

learning that occurs when subject performs certain voluntary behavior, and the consequences of the behavior determine the likelihood of its recurrence

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28
Q

How did Edward Thorndike contribute to research on operant conditioning?

A
  • put cats in puzzle boxes to demonstrate trial and error in obtaining a fish
  • coined the terms “instrumental learning” and “Law of Effect”
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29
Q

What is instrumental learning?

A

Thorndike’s term for type of associative learning where a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequence

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30
Q

Explain the Law of Effect.

A
  • behaviors followed by a positive consequence are strengthened and more likely to occur
  • behaviors followed by a negative consequence are weakened and less likely to occur
  • concluded by Edward Thorndike
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31
Q

What is a Skinner box?

A

operant conditioning chamber for research animals, designed by B.F. Skinner, that contained levers, food dispensers, lights, and an electrified grid

32
Q

What are the four training procedures of B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning?

A
  1. positive reinforcement
  2. negative reinforcement
  3. punishment
  4. omission training
33
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

positive reinforcement

A

reward training where a behavior is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again

Example:

praise after participating in class

34
Q

What is the Premack principle?

A

type of positive reinforcement where a more probable behavior is used as a reinforcer for a less probable one

Example:

treating yourself to an hour of TV after spending three hours studying for the AP Psych exam

35
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

negative reinforcement

A

removing an unpleasant consequence

Example:

taking an advil to relieve a headache

36
Q

Explain the two types of negative reinforcement.

A
  1. avoidance behavior: takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins
  2. escape behavior: takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started
37
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

punishment

A

unpleasant consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; a.k.a. positive punishment

Example:

spanking a child for misbehaving

38
Q

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

omission training

A

removing a rewarding consequence following a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated

Example:

taking away a child’s toy after misbehaving

39
Q

What is aversive conditioning?

A

learning that involves an unpleasant stimulus or reinforcer, such as negative reinforcement and punishment

40
Q

Define:

learned helplessness

A

state of feeling powerless to change yourself or your situation because of a prior inability to avoid an aversive event

41
Q

What are the three types of reinforcers?

A
  1. primary
  2. secondary
  3. generalized
42
Q

Define and give an example of:

primary reinforcers

A

something that is biologically, naturally important and therefore rewarding

Example:

food and drink

43
Q

Define and give an example of:

secondary reinforcers

A

something neutral that can become rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer

Examples:

gold stars, tokens, points, money

44
Q

Define and give an example of:

generalized reinforcers

A

secondary reinforcer that can be associated with several primary reinforcers

Example:

money can be used to buy food and also other enjoyable items.

45
Q

How does a token economy work?

A
  • operant conditioning system
  • secondary reinforcers are used to increase acceptable behaviors
  • tokens can be exchanged for privileges and prizes
  • used in mental hospitals and jails
46
Q

Define behavior modification in terms of operant conditioning.

A
  • small steps are rewarded until the intended goal is achieved
  • uses the behavioral approach to solve individual, institutional, and societal problems
47
Q

How is shaping used to teach a new behavior?

A

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Example:

In toilet training, rewards are given to the child at each step.

48
Q

Define chaining as it relates to operant conditioning.

A
  • initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a certain order
  • later on, rewards only given for completing the whole sequence
  • in order to establish a specific sequence of behaviors
49
Q

What is the purpose of reinforcement schedules?

A

to determine how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner

50
Q

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?

A

provides reinforcement every time the behavior is exhibited by human or animal

51
Q

What is a partial reinforcement schedule?

A
  • reinforcing behavior only some of the time
  • a.k.a. intermittent schedule
52
Q

What is a ratio schedule and what are the four types?

A

schedule based on the number of desired responses

  1. fixed ratio
  2. fixed interval
  3. variable ratio
  4. variable interval
53
Q

Define:

fixed ratio schedule

A

reinforcement comes after a specific number of behavior responses

Example:

Every three times you get a question right, you get a piece of candy.

54
Q

Define:

fixed interval schedule

A

reinforcement comes at a specific time

Example:

You know you have a quiz tomorrow, so you don’t study until the night before.

55
Q

Define:

variable ratio schedule

A

number of behavior responses needed for reinforcement changes

Example:

You sit at a slot machine pulling the lever hundreds of time because you don’t know how many pulls are needed before the jackpot.

56
Q

Define:

variable interval schedule

A

amount of time before reinforcement of behavior changes

Example:

You study every night in preparation for a pop quiz because you don’t know when it is coming.

57
Q

How is superstitious behavior formed?

A

When reinforcement occurs during an idiosyncratic behavior, the organism is likely to repeat that behavior, even though it doesn’t cause the reinforcement.

58
Q

What did John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner study?

A

studied only behaviors, disregarded thought processes because they were not observable

59
Q

What do cognitive theorists believe humans and other animals are capable of, beyond classical and operant conditioning?

A

forming expectations and being consciously motivated by rewards

60
Q

What is the contingency model?

A

Richard Rescorla’s theory that the key to classical conditioning is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS

61
Q

What model did the contingency model counter?

A

Pavlov’s contiguity model that classical conditioning is based on the association in time of the CS prior to the UCS

62
Q

What is the blocking effect?

A

Leon Kamin’s concept that conditioning effect of neutral stimulus is blocked when already conditioned with UCS

63
Q

Name an example of delayed gratification.

A

saving money for college or a car, rather than spending it immediately

64
Q

Who was Edward Tolman?

A
  • confirmed the presence of latent learning
  • found unrewarded rats form cognitive map of the maze so when presented with a reward, they are motivated to improve
65
Q

Define:

latent learning

A

learning in the absence of rewards

66
Q

Define insight as it relates to learning.

A

sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem

67
Q

Who observed insight in chimpanzees?

A

Wolfgang Kohler

68
Q

Define:

observational learning

A
  • learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model
  • a.k.a. social learning or vicarious learning
69
Q

What are the four steps of observational learning, according to Albert Bandura?

A
  1. attention
  2. retention
  3. reproduction
  4. motivation
70
Q

What were the results of the bobo dolls experiment?

A
  • when offered rewards to imitate violent behavior, did not always lead to response
  • demonstrated modeling: those who watched violent models imitated them
71
Q

What provides the biological basis for observational learning?

A

Mirror neurons are activated when you perform an action and when you observe someone else perform a similar action.

72
Q

Define:

conditioned taste aversion

A
  • intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning
  • adaptive responses of organisms to foods that could sicken or kill them
  • a.k.a. Garcia effect
73
Q

Define preparedness as it relates to learning.

A

Through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species.

74
Q

Who experimented on conditioned taste aversions and biological preparedness in rats?

A

John Garcia and Robert Koelling

75
Q

What is instinctive drift?

A

CR that drifts back toward the natural, instinctive behavior of the organism

76
Q

What is the evidence of biological factors of learning?

A

Rats raised in enriched environments had thicker cortices, higher brain weight, and greater neural connectivity than rats raised in deprived environments.

77
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A
  • physiological change that correlates with a stable change in behavior due to experience
  • “neurons that fire together, wire together”
  • studied by Donald Hebb and Eric Kandel

Mollie's AP Psych (5 decks)

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