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AQA A-level psychology > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

define operationalisation of variables

A
  • clearly defining variables and how they are intended to be measured.
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2
Q

define EV.

A

a variable that is not the IV, but may affect the DV, eg light, sound

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3
Q

Define confounding variable

A
  • a EV that cannot be controlled, varies systematically with the IV.
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4
Q

Define and explain investigator effects

A
  • any conscious/unconscious behaviours from the researcher that may effect answers from pps
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5
Q

what are the 3 types of experimental design?

A
  • independent groups
  • matched pairs
  • repeated measures
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6
Q

Describe what an independent groups design is.

A
  • each group only takes part in one conditions
  • the mean of whatever the DV is compared between these diff groups.
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7
Q

Give pros and cons of using an independent groups design .

A
  • more time efficient
  • less chance of order effects and demand characteristics
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8
Q

define a repeated measures design

A

each pp takes part in each condition then compared.

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9
Q

give a pro and con of repeated measures

A

pp variables controlled, so higher validity
order effects might come into play with demand characteristics.

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10
Q

define a matched pairs design

A
  • pps are partnered with someone with a similar, relevant variable, so pps only take part in one condition
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11
Q

give a pro and con of matched pairs

A
  • pre tests and other matching process may be time consuming
  • order effects and demand characteristics are reduced.
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12
Q

define a quasi experiment

A
  • they have an IV that is based on an already existing factor that can’t be changed- eg gender.
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13
Q

give the strengths and limitations of quasi experiments

A

-cannot determine for sure if IV is what caused change in DV
- have some control, which increases validity.

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14
Q

define a natural experiment

A
  • a type of natural experiment where a researcher uses an IV that is already in existence, but an environmental one that MAY be manipulated, eg drug addicts or left/right handed people.
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15
Q

Give the pros and cons of a natural experiment.

A
  • high ecological validity: since IV cannot be changed, can be applied to real life well.
  • lack of control: there may not be control over EVs and confounding variables, leading to low internal validity.
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16
Q

Compare and contrast a NATURAL and QUASI experiment.

A
  • both involve choosing already occurring variables.
  • however in a natural experiment, a variable that is an environmental choice is chosen, eg the preference of coffee over tea, whereas in quasi experiments, a natural IV is chosen that cannot be manipulated whatsoever, eg age.
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17
Q

define systematic sampling.

A
  • every nth person from a population being chosen within a sampling frame.
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18
Q

define stratified sampling

A
  • population divided into strata, with pps from each strata being selected using random sampling until a sample size is reached.
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19
Q

give pros and cons of systematic sampling

A

+: little bias because after interval has been decided, researcher has little to no control over who is selected.
-: time consuming and sampling frame needed.

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20
Q

give pros and cons of stratified sampling

A
  • representative of population, equal proportion of each strata present, easier to generalise.
  • time consuming to distribute population into strata, and sometimes categories might be half met, therefore hard to group certain individuals.
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21
Q

What are the BPS ethical guidelines? (4)

A
  • protection from physical and mental harm
  • informed consent
  • no deception
  • confidentiality and privacy.
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22
Q

How do we get around informed consent?(3)

A
  • presumptive consent- other group not in the study asked if it sounds ok
  • Prior general consent: consenting to multiple studies, even those that involve deception.
  • retrospective consent: asked for after study is done, dueing debrief.
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23
Q

Dealing with deception and protection from harm? (3)

A
  • provide counselling if study was potentially traumatic.
  • fully debrief pps
  • should be aware that they have right to withhold data.
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24
Q

How do we deal with confidentiality? (2)

A
  • use initials when listing patient specific data
  • during debriefing, patients should be made aware that their data will be completely private and not shared with others unless their prior consent is given.
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25
Q

Define pilot studies

A
  • a smaller scale investigation carried out before the actual investigation.
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26
Q

What are the aims of a pilot study? (3)

A
  • to check that experimental design is appropriate.
  • to check if possible questionaries are appropriate.
  • to make changes to any technique is needed
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27
Q

Define a naturalistic observation
Pros and cons?

A
  • observing a study in a natural environment, eg a classroom.
  • +: higher external validity, can apply to real life because its in a natural environment.
  • -: lack of control, so less likely to produce valid results.
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28
Q

Define a controlled observation
pros and cons?

A
  • observing in an environment where some control is used, eg a lab.
  • +: high internal validity: controlled observations, so easier to replicate.
  • -: low ecological validity, due to artificial stimuli and environment.
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29
Q

Define an OVERT observation
pros and cons?

A

when pps KNOW they’re being observed.
+: much easier to do if researcher doesn’t fit into sample size as pp.
-: demand characteristics are likely
-: ethics man ethics- privacy

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30
Q

Define COVERT observation
pros and cons?

A

when pps DONT KNOW when they’re being observed.
- +: less chance of demand characteristics, as unaware they’re being wacthed
- -: ETHICS- kinda creepy, deception and privacy.

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31
Q

Define pp observation
pros and cons?

A

when the researcher becomes a part of the sample that they are observing (eg poses as a student)
- +: increased external validity because less chance of demand characteristics, gives real life insights.
-: researcher might loose objectivity, therefore conclusions might be biased.

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32
Q

What is a criticism of ALL types of observation?
how can it be minimised?

A
  • observer bias: observer’s interpretation may affect results of study.
  • can be reduced by involving several observers.
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33
Q
  • define behavioural categories
A

when a target behaviour is broken down into observable and measurable components

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34
Q

define event sampling

A
  • data that is recorded every time an event occurs
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35
Q

define time sampling

A
  • data that is collected at a certain time interval, eg every 5 mins
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36
Q

Define the following terms:
structured interviews
unstructured interviews
semi structured interviews

A
  • fixed list of questions asked in a fixed order
  • no fixed list of questions- pp’s response determines next question
  • certain questions are fixed, but allows room for flexibility in changing questions.
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37
Q

Define acquiescence bias

A
  • yes saying tendency to questions without properly understanding them.
38
Q

how do you design good interview/questionaries

A
  • avoiding overuse of jargon
  • avoiding leading questions and emotive language
  • avoiding double barrelled questions (two questions in one)
39
Q

What are features of a sign test? What situations should it only be used in?

A
  • repeated measure design
  • looking at a difference in data
  • have to have nominal data (categoric data)
40
Q

What is a type 1 error

A

when a null hypothesis is rejected when it shouldn’t have been.
so false positive

41
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A
  • when a null hypothesis is accepted when it shouldn’t have been
  • false negative
42
Q

what 3 questions would you ask yourself when you determine what statistical test you should use?

A
  • Diff or Correlation
  • Nominal, ordinal or interval data.
  • Experimental design (independant, or related data?)
43
Q

in what case would you use a sign test?

A
  • Diff, Nominal, related (matched pairs or repeated measures)
44
Q

In what case could you use a Wilcoxon test?

A
  • diff, ordinal, related data
45
Q

In what case would you use related t test?

A
  • Diff, interval, related
46
Q

In what case would you use a chi squared test?

A
  • independant, nominal, diff
47
Q

In what case would you use a Mann-Whitney test?

A
  • Independant, ordinal, diff
48
Q

In what case would you use the unrelated t test?

A
  • independant, interval, diff
49
Q

in what case would you use a chi squared test when looking for the correlation?

A
  • nominal, correlation, related data
50
Q

In what case would you use a Spearman’s rho?

A
  • related, correlation, Ordinal
51
Q

In what case would you use Pearson’s r?

A
  • Interval, correlation, related data.
52
Q

Nominal data

A
  • categoric data, is discreet.
53
Q

Ordinal data

A
  • data that can be ordered, eg scores on a test, on a scale, not equal intervals.
54
Q

Interval data

A
  • data with equal intervals, usually with units.
55
Q

give the format of a psychological research report.

A
  • abstract
  • intro
  • method
  • results
  • discussion
  • refs
56
Q

Define reliability

A
  • the extent to which a test produces consistent results.
57
Q

Define internal reliability

A
  • extent to which something is consistent within itself
58
Q

Define external reliability

A
  • extent to which a test measures consistently over time.
59
Q

Define inter-observer reliability

A
  • consistency between findings/observations of multiple observers in a study.
60
Q

How do you improve observational reliability?

A
  • use multiple observers
  • train observers to know what to look for
  • Have clearly defined criteria.
61
Q

Give a method assesing internal reliability using questionnaires

A
  • split-half method - the same pps do the both halves
  • assess correlation between the answers of the 2 halves using Pearsons R test
  • if results are consistent, then the questionnaire has good internal reliability
62
Q

Give a method to assess external reliability using questionnaires

A
  • test-retest method: give the pps the same test on 2 separate occasions,
63
Q

Give 3 ways to improve reliability in self-report methods. (interviews)

A
  • use precise questions (eg closed qs)
  • use the same interviewer, or train the interviewer.
  • Pilot questionnaire beforehand to check clarity of questions
64
Q

Give 3 methods to improve reliability for controlled research

A
  • use same method for pps
  • use same conditions
  • when replicated, researchers need to use the same method each time.
65
Q

Define validity

A
  • the extent to which something measures what it claims to.
66
Q

Define internal validity

A
  • concerns towards whether the results are due to the IV being manipulated and not due to confounding variables.
67
Q

Name the 3 types of external validity.

A
  • Ecological
  • temporal
  • population
68
Q

Define ecological validity

A
  • whether findings from a controlled experiment can be generalised elsewhere.
69
Q

Define temporal validity

A
  • whether findings from a controlled experiment can be generalised beyond the period of time of the study.
70
Q

Define population validity

A
  • whether results can be generalised to other groups.
71
Q

Define face validity

A
  • when we use self report methods - quick eyeballing to see if the test is measuring what it’s supposed to measure
72
Q

Define concurrent validity

A
  • when an established test is used, in comparison to a non-established one.
  • if the non-E one has similar results to the established, we can say that the test has concurrent validity.
73
Q

Give 2 ways of improving validity when using questionnaires.

A
  • assure responses are anonymous
  • review them again when they are determined to have low concurrent validity.
74
Q

give 3 ways of improving validity in experimental research.

A
  • use control group to serve as a comparison - whether or not the manipulation of the IV is the thing that’s changing it.
  • standardise procedures
  • Double blind studies to reduce DCs.
75
Q

give 1 way of improving validity when using observations

A
  • make sure categories aren’t too broad or overlapping.
76
Q

Give 2 ways of improving validity when using observational techniques.

A
  • use direct quotes and be coherent in reporting.
  • triangulation can be used - eg using different sources: personal diaries, family etc.
77
Q

Describe what is meant by content analysis.

A
  • researcher making their observations based on indirect methods, such as books, films, diaries etc.
78
Q

give the 3 steps to go through content analysis.

A
  • identify themes in the data
  • repeatedly go through the data - eg listen to recordings more often, and read over reports again.
  • tally the themes
79
Q

Define thematic analysis

A
  • an analytical qualitative method for organising, describing and interpreting data.
80
Q

What is a case study

A

An in depth analysis of a single induvial or group over time - often idiographic and individualistic

81
Q

Describe one disadvantage of a case study

A
  • findings cannot be generalised to other individuals
  • Because of case studies being very unique to an individual, they cannot be replicated, so they lack reliability
82
Q

give 2 disadvantages, other than generalisability when using case studies

A
  • researcher may develop bias toward subject as they get to know them very well.
  • Case studies are extremely specific to one individual or group, and thus cannot be replicated - so they lack reliability
83
Q

Describe a method to carry out content analysis.

A
  • Create a checklist of categories
  • count/tally frequency of behaviour.
  • Analyse the data using quantitative methods - eg representing tallies over time of study etc.
84
Q

What is the advantage of thematic analysis over content analysis?

A
  • since themes are identified after the overview of content, it may prevent observer bias in this case.
85
Q

Describe what is meant by investigator effects.

A
  • when a researcher’s potential biases can impact results of the study.
86
Q

Give ways to prevent investigator effects.

A
  • inter-rater reliability - use another researcher and compare these results.
  • use a double blind method
87
Q

State and explain one advantage of using observation

A
  • allows observation of real behaviour rather than spoken responses - people may lie/resort to trying to remember their responses.
88
Q

What are the stages of scientific theory.

A
  • observation
  • constructing a hypothesis
  • collecting experimental data
  • Proposing a theory that may explain the results.
89
Q

Outline what is involved in self report technique

A
  • when pps themselves report their thoughts/feelings themselves
  • This can be through questionnaires or surveys
  • can also involve open/closed questions
90
Q

define Paradigm

A
  • a shared set of assumptions that is from a generally accepted scientific theory.
91
Q

Describe how criteria may help refine observational techniques (4)

A
  • may help provide quantitative data - so easier to analyse
  • may help researcher have clear goal as to what they are looking for
  • may improve reliability
  • can allow tallying into pre-arranged groupings
92
Q

How can you deal with socially sensitive research?

A
  • be aware of implications of research if published
  • make sure pps are aware that they have the right to withdraw
  • ensure confidentiality of all pps involved
  • assess research question carefully - is it leaning towards anything?

AQA A-level psychology (12 decks)

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