Issues and debates

Question 1

androcentrism

Answer 1

when normal behaviour is judged on a male standard - female behaviour may be looked at as deficient.

Question 2

Describe what is meant by a idiographic approach to research

Answer 2

• research that mostly focuses on the individual, the findings of which are not generalized to a population to formulate general laws of behavior.

Question 3

Describe what is meant by the nomothetic approach to research

Answer 3

aims to study laws through generalisation, which can then be applied to individual scenarios.

Question 4

Name ways to study idiographically

Answer 4

• case studies
• qualitative data

Question 5

Give an example of an approach that makes use of idiographic research.

Answer 5

• Psychodynamic approach, eg the case study of Little Hans and the Oedipus complex - this was a generalisation made FROM a case study, and could be used to explain why his phobia developed.

Question 6

Give an example of a method to investigate nomothetically

Answer 6

• quantitative research
• eg structured questionnaires

Question 7

State and explain one key difference between the idiographic and nomothetic approaches.

Answer 7

• idiographic is much more subjective whereas nomothetic is much more objective.
• This might be because the method of assessment for a nomothetic approach is very structured and ensures true replication (good reliability) among multiple trials/samples.
• However, for an idiographic approach, there is subjectivity due to its methods of assesment -eg open interviews are viewed as important as it takes unique context of the individual into account.

Question 8

Give an example of an approach that makes use of the nomothetic approach

Answer 8

• biological approach - eg split brain research is clearly empirical, and provided the basis of understanding for hemispheric lateralisation

Question 9

Give the pros and cons of a nomothetic approach

Answer 9

+: scientific and quantitative data, so easier to identify trends and make unbiased conclusions.
-: may lack detail and individuality - may make conclusions to quickly or lack patient focused approaches.

Question 10

Give pros and cons for the idiographic approach

Answer 10

+: can prompt ideas for further research
+: can collect qualitative data, so very rich and detailed which prevents jumping to conclusions.
-: not standardised and may be very subjective, so cannot be generalisable to entire population (eg with case studies)

Question 11

Define alpha bias

Answer 11

Theories that exaggerate difference between men and women

Question 12

Define beta bias

Answer 12

Research that minimises or ignores the difference between men and women

Question 13

Define Gender Bias

Answer 13

• Differential treatment or representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not real evidenced differences

Question 14

Give an example of study/research/theory that implemented beta bias

Answer 14

• research on fight or flight responses in male mic - research was generalised to females, but did not account for speed or extent of the fight or flight response.

Question 15

Give an example of study/research/theory that implemented alpha bias

Answer 15

• Freud’s argument that the differences in complexes is due to females being inferior to males and developing weaker superegos than males.
• Or Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theories - where a lot of mother blaming is done, and the role of the father is ignored.

Question 16

Give pros and cons of gender bias in research

Answer 16

-: sometimes go unnoticed when significant contributions of the research have been made
+: beta bias may have actually helped women gain access to occupational and educational opportunity - eg equal parenting and role of the father studies allowed them to go back to work
-: but this ignored biological demands of pregnancy and recovery from birth.
-: gender biases from research - eg female pps nay be viewed as irritable and irrational when unable to complete complex tasks - may have contributed to real life stereotypes.
+: conversations triggered by gender bias research have been positive.

Question 17

Give 4 methods to reduce gender bias in research

Answer 17

• involve both female and male researchers to avoid androcentrism
• take a feminist view point
• take reflective approaches, eg calling yourself out when showing gender bias
• Be sensitive to both male and female standards when carrying out research.

Question 18

Cultural relativism

Answer 18

• idea that a behaviour can only be meaningfully understood in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs.

Question 19

Give topics in which culture bias is seen.

Answer 19

Ainsworth’s strange situation holding attachment to an ‘American standard’
Sz research - eg hearing voices considered Sz in western countries, but considered ancestors speaking to you in other cultures.

Question 20

Give pros and cons of Culture bias

Answer 20

• -: may amplify culture stereotypes - eg amplify stigma for sz by eastern countries, considered a ‘western’ disease
  +: increased understanding about the subject now, eg helping the us of more indegenous psychologists,

Question 21

Define social sensitivity

Answer 21

studies where there are potential social consequences for the pps, group of people represented or related to the research.

Question 22

Define ethical issues

Answer 22

• an issue that may bring systems of morality and principles into conflict.

Question 23

Name Stanley and Seiber’s 4 aspects as to what could make research socially sensitive.

Answer 23

• The questions
• The methodology
• the institutional context (eg who’s funding research)
• Interpretation and application of findings

Question 24

Name some examples of studies with ethical issues

Answer 24

• Milgram - distress, deception, protection from harm can be explored here
• Zimbardo: distress after the experiment, psychological harm.
• Bowlby: (on wider population) - suggests women’s full responsibility over children etc.

Question 25

Give pros and cons of socially sensitive research

Answer 25

+: can be highly useful and contribute significantly to society, eg role of the father research of EWT.
-: can have harmful impacts on society: eg Bowlby’s maternal dep. theory may have had negative implications in parent blaming and discrimination towards fathers in being PAFs.
+: can challenge prejudice and stigma - eg research into Gender identity disorder may be able to promote underrepresented populations and heighten understanding of gender.

Question 26

Briefly outline the nature-nurture debate in psychology

Answer 26

• the extent to which nurture (external factors) and Nature (biology) have the power to both influence behaviour
• suggested also by an interactionist approach - eg the diathesis stress model.

Question 27

Give pros and cons of the nature-nurture debate

Answer 27

support for nature:
- Gottesman DZ and MZ twin OCD concordance rate.
- adoption studies - for SZ and IQ
INTERACTIONIST approach - eg diathesis stress model where nurture has the ability to impact nurture or an environmental trigger leads to disorder manifesting when a person already had genetic vulnerability (eg lac operon model)
Support for nurture:
- Double bind theory for Sz. (disordered communication withing family)

Question 28

Define Hard determinism

Answer 28

• the view that free will is an illusion and that behaviour is controlled by factors outside of our control

Question 29

Define soft determinism

Answer 29

view that behavoiur is controlled by environmental or biological forces, but only to a certain extent (an element of free will involved)

Question 30

Name some approaches that make use of determinism

Answer 30

• biological
• psychodynamic
• behaviourism

Question 31

Name some approaches that make use of some free will

Answer 31

• humanistic (Fully free will)
• Cognitive approach (eg in cognitive therapy that requires choosing to change thoughts)
• SLT: level of choice whether to imitate or not.

Question 32

Give some pros and cons of free will vs determinism

Answer 32

+: determinism is consistent with scientific methods unlike free will. - eg manipulation of variables, allows objectivity in research. However, impacts of free will may be seen in research - demand characteristics may in fact be pps choosing to use the ‘screw u’ effect etc.
-: Free will and humanism is a quite non-empirical approach (might be an illusion) - supported by Libet and his idea that brain regions become active before a person registers conscious awareness.

Question 33

Define reductionism

Answer 33

when an approach ignores the complex interaction of several other factors.

Question 34

Give pros and cons of reductionism and holism

Answer 34

+: reductionism is much more scientific but not Holism - so allows for more objective study and empirical support - so may be useful in developing treatments and drugs– eg biological determinism helping come up with SSRIs for depression.
-: but just determinism may ignore context - it may result in a more incomplete understanding of behaviour.

Question 35

Define Parsimony

Answer 35

the idea that complex behaviour should always be explained in its simplest parts.

Question 36

Describe the different levels of explanation for reductionism vs holism

Answer 36

• Highest: Social and cultural explainations (eg post event discussion of leading questions)
• middle: Psychological explanations, eg cognitive, behaviourcal and environmental
• Lowest: fully reductionist explanations eg biological approaches and action of SSRIs.