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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 Types of Experiments?

A

Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi

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2
Q

What is a Lab Experiment?

A

An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment where the IV is manipulated by the researcher and the effect on the DV is measured

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3
Q

What is a Field Experiment?

A

An experiment carried out in a natural environment where the IV is manipulated and the researcher observes the effect it has on the DV

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4
Q

What is a Natural Experiment?

A

An experiment carried out in a natural environment where the IV is not directly manipulated and is occurring naturally

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5
Q

What is a Quasi Experiment?

A

An experiment that isn’t quite an experiment because the IV is not manipulated and is based on a pre-existing difference between people

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6
Q

What are the 6 Types of Observations?

A

Natural
Controlled
Overt
Covert
Participant
Non-Participant

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7
Q

What is a Natural Observation?

A

Behaviour is observed in its natural setting where everything has been left as it is

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8
Q

What is a Controlled Observation?

A

Behaviour is observed in an environment where the variables are controlled by the researcher

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9
Q

What is a Covert Observation?

A

Behaviour is observed and recorded without consent from the participants and they are unaware they are being observed

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10
Q

What is an Overt Observation?

A

Behaviour is observed where the participants know they are being observed

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11
Q

What is a Participant Observation?

A

Where the observer becomes part of the group they are studying

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12
Q

What are the 3 Self Report Methods

A

Questionnaires
Structured Interviews
Unstructured Interviews

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13
Q

What is a Questionnaire?

A

A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences

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14
Q

What are the 5 Strengths of a Questionnaire?

A
  • Cost efficient
  • Gather large amounts of data quickly
  • Can be completed without researcher being present
  • Data is straightforward to analyse
  • Comparisons can be easily made
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15
Q

What are the 5 Weaknesses of a Questionnaire?

A
  • Responses may not be truthful/valid
  • Social desirability bias
  • Response bias
  • Acquiescence bias
  • Low response rate
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16
Q

What is a Structured Interview?

A

Any interview where the questions are decided in advance

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17
Q

What are the 3 Strengths of a Structured Interview?

A
  • Easy to replicate
  • Reduces differences between interviews
  • Reduces depth/validity
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18
Q

What are the 2 Weaknesses of a Structured Interview?

A
  • Interviewer cannot deviate from the topic or explain their questions
  • Limits richness of data collected as well
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19
Q

What is an Unstructured Interview?

A

The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions

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20
Q

What are the 3 Strengths of an Unstructured Interview?

A
  • More flexibility
  • Gain more insight into worldview of interviewee
  • May get unexpected information
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21
Q

What are the 3 Weaknesses of an Unstructured Interviews?

A
  • Interview bias
  • Not straightforward to analyse data
  • Social desirability bias
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22
Q

What is a Content Analysis?

A

Systematically summarising and describing any form of content - written, spoken or visual

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23
Q

What are the Two Things Involved in a Content Analysis?

A
  • Drawing up coding categories and counting how often these categories occur
  • Converts qualitative data into quantitative
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24
Q

What are the 6 Steps involved in a Content Analysis?

A
  • Decide what your research question is
  • Decide what you are going to analyse and how you will collect this
  • Develop a list of coding categories
  • Pilot it and make any changes needed
  • Count the number of times the categories occur
  • Check the reliability of the content analysis by correlating one researcher’s scores with another’s
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25
Q

4 Evaluation Points of Content Analysis

A
  • Can get around many of the ethical issues usually associated with research
  • Suffers from subjectivity
  • Observer bias
  • Can be flexible - can produce both qualitative and quantitative data
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26
Q

Definition of Directional Hypothesis

A

Where the researcher makes clear what kind if difference they expect to happen

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27
Q

Definition of Non-Directional Hypothesis

A

Where the researcher state that they expect a difference but the exact difference is not specified

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28
Q

When Should You Use a Directional Hypothesis?

A

Choose this if previous research has suggested a particular outcome

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29
Q

When Should You Use a Non-Directional Hypothesis?

A

Choose this if no previous research has been done, or previous research has proved inconclusive

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30
Q

Definition of Pilot Study

A

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted

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31
Q

5 Aims of a Pilot Study

A
  • Run with a small amount of participants
  • Test out any research methods
  • Save time and money
  • Done before main study
  • Do not include the results of the pilot study in main research
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32
Q

What is a Self Report Technique?

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviors and experiences related to a given topic

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33
Q

What is an Open Quesiton?

A

Questions with no fixed answer/response and respondents can answer in any way they wish

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34
Q

2 Strengths of an Open Question

A
  • Get more information
  • Produces qualitative data - more depth and detail
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35
Q

2 Weakness of an Open Question

A
  • People can miss them out as they can’t be bothered to answer them
  • Harder to analyse
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36
Q

What is a Closed Question?

A

Questions with a fixed answer/ the choice of response is determined by the question setter

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37
Q

2 Strengths of a Closed Question

A
  • Quick and easy to answer
  • Quantitive data is easier to analyse
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38
Q

2 Weakness of a Closed Question

A
  • Not detailed or in depth answers
  • Don’t find the meaning behind the answer
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39
Q

What is a Semi-Structured Interview?

A

There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate

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40
Q

What is an Aim?

A

A general statement that the researcher intends to investigate

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41
Q

What is a Hypothesis?

A

A detailed statement which is clear, precise and testable that states the relationship between variables being tested

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42
Q

What is a Null Hypothesis?

A

States that there will be no relationship between the 2 variables

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43
Q

What is a Meta-Analysis?

A

A particular form of research method that uses secondary data from a large number of studies which have involved the same research question and method are combined

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44
Q

What is Quantitative Data?

A

Data that focuses on numbers and frequencies which can be counted

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45
Q

What is Qualitative Data?

A

Data that describes meaning and experiences which is expressed in words

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46
Q

What is Primary Data?

A

Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher

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47
Q

What is Secondary Data?

A

Information that has already been collected by previous researchers

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48
Q

Informed Consent - 2 Points

A
  • Participants should be told what they are letting themselves in for
  • If under 16 consent must be obtained from their parents.
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49
Q

What is Deception?

A

Information is withheld from participants and they are misled about the purpose of the study and what will happen during it.

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50
Q

Right to Withdraw - 2 Point

A
  • Participants should be told this at the start of the research
  • No attempt should be made to encourage them to remain.
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51
Q

What is Protection from Harm?

A

Participants should not be put through anything they wouldn’t normally be expected to

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52
Q

What is Competence?

A

Psychologists must not attempt to carry out research unless they are qualified to do so

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53
Q

What is a Debrief?

A

Researchers should discuss the aims of the research with the p.ps making sure they know how they’ve contributed to meeting the aims

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54
Q

Ethical Issues - 6 Points

A
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
  • Right to withdraw
  • Protection from harm
  • Competence
  • Debrief
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55
Q

What is a Variable?

A

Any thing that can vary or change with in an investigation

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56
Q

What is an Independent Variable?

A

An aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured

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57
Q

What is a Dependent Variable?

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher, and is caused by change in the IV

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58
Q

What is Operationalising Variables?

A

The process of devising a way of measuring a variable. It is a clear statement of what the variable is

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59
Q

4 Strengths of Lab Experiments

A
  • Can establish cause and effect
  • Few if any extraneous variables
  • Easy to replicate
  • High internal validity
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60
Q

4 Weaknesses of Lab Experiments

A
  • Lacks ecological / external validity
  • Demand characteristics can occur
  • Behaviour in a lab is often different
  • Experimenter effects can occur
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61
Q

4 Strengths of Field Experiments

A
  • More ecologically/externally valid
  • Fewer demand characteristics
  • Replication can occur to some extent
  • Fewer experimenter effects
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62
Q

4 Weaknesses of Field Experiments

A
  • Chance of extraneous variables
  • More time consuming
  • Ethical issues (informed consent)
  • Need a skilled researcher
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63
Q

4 Strengths of Natural Experiments

A
  • No demand characteristics
  • No researcher effects
  • Fewer ethical issues
  • Allows P.ps who wouldn’t normally be tested to take part
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64
Q

4 Weakness of Natural Experiments

A
  • Lack of control (extraneous variables)
  • Short term behaviour may be displayed
  • No random allocation can create confounding variables
  • Harder to replicate
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65
Q

What are Extraneous Variables?

A

Any variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV if not controlled, but can be controlled by the researcher

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66
Q

What are Confounding Variables?

A

A variable apart from the IV which can effect the DV, but cannot be controlled by the researcher

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67
Q

What is the Baseline Measure?

A

Result established from control condition when no manipulation of IV occurs and allows comparisons to be made.

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68
Q

What is Random Allocation?

A

People are chosen randomly and have an equal chance of being selected

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69
Q

What is Ecological Validity?

A

How methods can be applied to real life settings

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70
Q

What is External Validity?

A

How valid results are outside of a research setting

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71
Q

What are Demand Characteristics?

A

Any cue from the researcher or research situation that can be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation leading them to changing their behaviour

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72
Q

What are Experimenter Effects?

A

Where the experimenter changes a persons views usually sub-consciously through body language

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73
Q

What are Experimental Methods?

A

The type of experiment you do

74
Q

What are Experimental Designs?

A

How you carry the experiment out

75
Q

What is an Independent Groups Design?

A

Each participant either does the control condition or the experimental condition

76
Q

4 Strengths of an Independent Groups Design

A
  • Reduces demand characteristics
  • Quick to administer
  • Could be used for all tests
  • Prevents order effects
77
Q

3 Weaknesses of an Independent Groups Design

A
  • Individual differences can occur
  • Lots of Participants are required
  • More time consuming
78
Q

What is a Repeated Measures Design?

A

Each participant does the control condition and the experimental condition

79
Q

3 Strengths of a Repeated Measures Design

A
  • Quick to administer
  • No individual differences
  • Fewer participants are required
80
Q

3 Weaknesses of a Repeated Measures Design

A
  • High possibility of demand characteristics
  • Order effects can occur
  • Can’t be used for all tests
81
Q

What is a Matched Pairs Design?

A

Participants are matched on key characteristics, and one participant does the control condition, whilst the other does the experimental condition.

82
Q

3 Strengths of a Matched Pairs Design

A
  • Less possibility of demand characteristics
  • Prevents order effects
  • No individual differences
83
Q

5 Weaknesses of a Matched Pairs Design

A
  • Time consuming
  • Lots of participants are required
  • Hard to match participants on all variables
  • Can’t be used for all tests
  • Not very economical
84
Q

What is Counterbalancing?

A

An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design

85
Q

What are Order Effects?

A

A confounding variable arising from the order which participants take place in the different conditions

86
Q

2 Strengths of Naturalistic Observations

A
  • High external validity
  • Easy to apply in everyday life
87
Q

2 Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observations

A
  • Hard to replicate
  • Extraneous variables can occur
88
Q

2 Strengths of Controlled Observations

A
  • Easy to replicate
  • Less extraneous variables
89
Q

Weakness of Controlled Observations

A

Findings can’t be applied to all real life settings

90
Q

Strength of Participant Observations

A

Experience the same situation which gives insight which increases validity

91
Q

Weakness of Participant Observations

A

Can get too attached to people and lose objectivity

92
Q

Strength of Non-Participant Observations

A

Allows researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from participants

93
Q

Weakness of Non-Participant Observations

A

Researcher has less insight

94
Q

2 Strengths of Covert Observations

A
  • No participant reactivity
  • Natural behaviour - increases validity
95
Q

Weakness of Covert Observations

A

Ethics - people might not want to be observed

96
Q

Strength of Overt Observations

A

More ethically acceptable (have consent)

97
Q

Weakness of Overt Observations

A

Can be influenced as they know they’re being watched

98
Q

What is Event Sampling?

A

Counting the time a particular behaviour occurs in a group/individual

99
Q

What is Time Sampling?

A

Recording behaviour with a pre established time frame

100
Q

What is Inter-Observer Reliability?

A

Two or more researchers observe the same behaviour at the same time then compare and amend results to create correlations

101
Q

What is the Target Population?

A

The entire group a researcher is interested in

102
Q

Sampling Bias - 2 Points

A
  • When certain groups are over or under represented with in the sample selected
  • It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
103
Q

Generalisation - 2 Points

A
  • The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular experiment can be broadly applied to the population
  • This is possible if the sample of people is representative of the population
104
Q

What is Inter-Rater Reliability?

A

Correlating the judgements of two or more ratings of behaviour when using a rating scale

105
Q

What is a Peer Review?

A

The assessment of work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research set for publication is high quality

106
Q

3 Aims of a Peer Review

A
  • To allocate funding properly and appropriately
  • To validate the quality of research
  • To suggest amendments and improvements
107
Q

Strength of a Peer Review

A

Helps to establish validity and accuracy of research because more than one person will carry out the experiment therefore allowing the data to be correlated

108
Q

2 Weaknesses of a Peer Review

A
  • The anonymity could lead to them being overcritical
  • Publication bias can occur where only positive results or attention grabbing results are published
109
Q

What is Opportunity Sampling?

A

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

110
Q

What is Random Sampling?

A

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

111
Q

What is Volunteer Sampling?

A

A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on inviting people to take part

112
Q

What is Systematic Sampling?

A

A method of obtaining a representative sample e.g. by selecting every 5th or 7th person

113
Q

What is Stratified Sampling?

A

A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the population in order to obtain a representative sample

114
Q

5 Sampling Techniques

A
  • Opportunity
  • Random
  • Systematic
  • Volunteer
  • Stratified
115
Q

What is a Correlation?

A

Where a researcher investigates an association between two variables call co-variables

116
Q

What is a Positive Correlation?

A

As one variable increase the other variable increases

117
Q

What is a Negative Correlation?

A

As one variable increase the other variable decreases

118
Q

What is a Zero Correlation?

A

When there is no relationship between the co-variables

119
Q

What are Measures of Central Tendency?

A

The general term for any measure of the average value in the set of data

120
Q

What are Measures of Dispersion?

A

The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores

121
Q

What is the Mean?

A

The arithmetic average

122
Q

2 Strengths of the Mean

A
  • Most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes all data
  • More representative
123
Q

Weakness of the Mean

A

Easily distorted with extreme values therefore won’t be representative

124
Q

What is the Median?

A

The central value in a set of data when it is ordered from lowest to highest value

125
Q

2 Strengths of the Median

A
  • Extreme scores don’t have an effect
  • Easy to calculate
126
Q

Weakness of the Median

A

Not very sensitive as not all scores are included

127
Q

What is the Mode?

A

The value that appears most frequently in a set of data

128
Q

2 Strengths of the Mode

A
  • Very easy to calculate
  • For data in categories it’s the only appropriate measure
129
Q

2 Weaknesses of the Mode

A
  • Crude measure as the mean and mode can be very different
  • Not representative
130
Q

What are the 3 Measures of Central Tendency?

A
  • Mean
  • Median
  • Mode
131
Q

When to Use the Mean?

A

No extreme values

132
Q

When to Use the Median?

A

Extreme values

133
Q

When to Use the Mode?

A

Only if data is in categories

134
Q

What is the Range?

A

Calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores

135
Q

How do you work out the Range?

A

Worked out by minusing the lowest value from the highest value and adding one as a mathematical correction.

136
Q

Strength of the Range

A

Easy to calculate

137
Q

2 Weaknesses of the Range

A
  • Only uses the 2 most extreme scores which may be unrepresentative of all the data
  • May not give a fair representation of the general spread of scores
138
Q

What is the Standard Deviation?

A

How far scores deviate from the mean

139
Q

Strength of the Standard Deviation

A

More precise than the range as it includes all values with in the final calculation

140
Q

Weakness of the Standard Deviation

A

Can be easily distorted by an extreme value

141
Q

What are the 2 Measures of Dispersion?

A
  • Range
  • Standard Deviation
142
Q

4 Types of Graphs

A
  • Bar chart
  • Scattergram
  • Histogram
  • Line graph
143
Q

Bar Charts - 2 Points

A
  • Used when data is divided into categories (discrete data)
  • The bars are separated to show different categories
144
Q

Scattergrams - 2 Points

A
  • They show associations between co-variables not differences
  • Either of the variables can be placed on the X/Y axis
145
Q

Histograms - 2 Points

A
  • Used when data is continuous
  • The bars touch each other
146
Q

Line Graphs - 3 Points

A
  • Represent continuous data
  • Each point is connected by a line
  • Usually the IV is plotted on the X axis and the DV is plotted on the Y axis
147
Q

What is Normal Distribution?

A

There is a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern

148
Q

Normal Distribution - 4 Points

A
  • Its bell shaped
  • Its symmetrical
  • The mean, median, mode are all in the centre
  • The 2 tails never touch the horizontal axis
149
Q

What is a Positively Skewed Distribution?

A

The long tail is on the positive side of the peak and most of the distribution is centred to the left

150
Q

What is a Positively Skewed Distribution Also Known as?

A

Right Skewed

151
Q

What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution?

A

The long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right

152
Q

What is a Negatively Skewed Distribution Also Known as?

A

Left Skewed

153
Q

Skewed Distributions - 2 Points

A
  • When the spread of data is not symmetrical meaning the data clusters to one end
  • The mode is located at the highest point, then the median and finally the mean.
154
Q

Statistical Testing - 2 Points

A
  • We need to know if the results are significant
  • The difference may be due to chance or coincidence
155
Q

What is the Sign Test?

A

Involves counting up the number of positive snd negative signs

156
Q

What are the 3 Things We Need to Use the Sign Test?

A
  • Be looking for differences not associations
  • Have used a repeated measures design
  • Have data which is organised into categories (nominal)
157
Q

Accepted Level of Probability - 2 Points

A
  • In psychology the accepted level is 0.05 / 5%
  • Sometime researchers need more confidence so have a more stringent significance level of 0.01 / 1%
158
Q

Calculated Value - 2 Points

A
  • The number the researcher is left with after the statistical test has been calculated
  • It is compared to the critical value to see whether the results are significant.
159
Q

What are the 3 Things you Need to Use the Critical Values Table?

A
  • Desired significance level (usually 0.05)
  • The number (N) of participants
  • Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
160
Q

What are Significant Results?

A

The results are significant if the calculated value is equal to or lower than the critical value

161
Q

Sign Test - 5 Steps

A
  • Convert data into nominal data by subtracting one condition away from the other. If the number is negative you put a - sign and if it is positive you put a + sign in the sign of difference column
  • Add up the number of + & - signs (if p.ps got the same score in both conditions their data is ignored)
  • Take the less frequent sign and call this ‘S’ which id the calculated value
  • Compare the calculated value to the critical value (the calculated value needs to be equal to or less than the critical value).
  • Write up the sign test
162
Q

What are the 8 Statistical Tests?

A
  • Mann-Whitney
  • Related T - Test
  • Unrelated T - Test
  • Sign Test
  • Wilcoxon
  • Chi Squared
  • Spearman’s Rank
  • Pearson’s
163
Q

What do you need for a Mann-Whitney Test? - 3 Points

A
  • Study of Difference
  • Independent Groups
  • Ordinal Data
164
Q

What do you need for a Related T - Test? - 3 Points

A
  • Study of Difference
  • Repeated Measures
  • Interval Data
165
Q

What do you need for an Unrelated T - Test? - 3 Points

A
  • Study of Difference
  • Independent Groups
  • Interval Data
166
Q

What do you need for a Sign Test? - 3 Points

A
  • Study of Difference
  • Repeated Measures
  • Nominal Data
167
Q

What do you need for a Wilcoxon Test? - 3 Points

A
  • Study of Difference
  • Repeated Measures
  • Ordinal Data
167
Q

What do you need for a Spearman’s Rank Test? - 2 Points

A
  • Study of Correlation
  • Ordinal Data
168
Q

What do you need for a Pearson’s Test? - 2 Points

A
  • Study of Correlation
  • Interval Data
169
Q

What do you need for a Chi Squared Test? - 2 Points

A
  • Study of Difference or Correlation
  • Nominal Data
170
Q

3 Ways of Classifying Quantitative Data

A
  • Nominal
  • Ordinal
  • Interval
171
Q

Nominal Data - 3 Points

A
  • Used when categorising something
  • Name categories are established by the research
  • Each ‘item’ only appears in one category
172
Q

Ordinal Data - 2 Points

A
  • Data is ranked so that it is possible to see the order of scores in relation to one another
  • Not an equal interval between each unit
173
Q

Interval Data - 3 Points

A
  • Gives the rank order of scores and details the precise interval between scores
  • Universally accepted levels of measurement
  • Example - temperature, finishing time in a race, weight
174
Q

7 Sections of a Scientific Report

A
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Method
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References/ Bibliography
  • Appendices
175
Q

Abstract Section of a Scientific Report - 2 Points

A
  • A brief summary of the report
  • Covers the aims, hypotheses, methods, procedures, results and the conclusions
176
Q

Introduction Section of a Scientific Report - 4 Points

A
  • Topic area and background to the study
  • Made up of the relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question
  • Introduce the study and explain the ideas behind it
  • Specific research hypotheses
177
Q

Method Section of a Scientific Report - 3 Points

A
  • Describe how the study was conducted
  • Should have enough information to allow for replication
  • Include the design, participants, apparatus, resources, materials, pilot study, and procedure
178
Q

Results Section of a Scientific Report - 3 Points

A
  • Report the findings of the study clearly and accurately
  • May be in words or visual interpretations
  • Includes the results of inferential analyses to determine whether the results are significant
179
Q

Discussion Section of a Scientific Report - 4 Points

A
  • Begins with a summary of the findings of the results
  • Offer explanations for the behaviours observed
  • Consider implications of the research
  • Make suggestions for further research
180
Q

References/Bibliography Section of a Scientific Report

A

Complete details of all research documents, journals, internet resources, and books that were mentioned and used for additional background research

181
Q

Appendices Section of a Scientific Report

A

Comprised of a copy of all resources and materials used within the study, raw data, and statistical calculations

AQA Psychology (11 decks)

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