Issues and Debates

Question 1

Definition of Universality

Answer 1

An underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing

Question 2

Definition of Gender Bias

Answer 2

Psychological research or theories that may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women

Question 3

Definition of Androcentrism

Answer 3

Male centred, or when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to the male standard

Question 4

Definition of Alpha Bias

Answer 4

Research that focuses on differences between men and women, and therefore tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences

Question 5

Definition of Beta Bias

Answer 5

Research that focuses on similarities between men and women, and therefore tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences

Question 6

Alpha Bias - 3 Points

Answer 6

• Can sometimes favour women in psychodynamic approach
• Nancy Chodorow suggested that daughters and mothers have a greater connection than mothers and sons because of biological similarities
• As a result of child’s closeness, women develop better abilities to bond with others and emphasise
• It Favours men in psychodynamic, as due to weaker identification with the same sex parent, women have a weaker superego and are so morally inferior to men

Question 7

Alpha Bias Example - Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Stages - 2 Points

Answer 7

• Castration anxiety resolved when boys identify with their father, but a girl’s eventual identification with her same-gender parent is weaker which means her superego is weaker
• Suggests girls/women are morally inferior to boys/men

Question 8

Alpha Bias Example - James Q Wilson - 2 Points

Answer 8

• Males are more promiscuous because according to natural selection and ‘survival efficiency’, it is in males best interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible so they have the best chance of their genes being passed on to the next generation
• It is in a women’s best interest to ensure the healthy survival of the small amount of offspring that she has to ensure her genes are carried on

Question 9

Beta Bias - 3 Points

Answer 9

• Taylor et al put forward the tend and befriend response, in place of the F/F response for women
• The love hormone oxytocin is more plentiful in women and it sees that women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production
• Reduces F/F response and enhances a preference for ‘tend and befriend’

Question 10

2 Examples of Beta Bias

Answer 10

• Fight or Flight response (biological approach)
• Early attachment research suggested only mothers provide emotional care (not fathers)

Question 11

Beta Bias Example - Biological Approach and Fight or Flight Response - 2 Points

Answer 11

• Biological research has generally favoured using male animals because female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes due to ovulation
• Early Research into F/F response also did this

Question 12

Androcentrism - 2 Points

Answer 12

• Both alpha and beta bias are consequences of this
• Women’s behaviour has been misunderstood and pathological

Question 13

2 Examples of Alpha Bias

Answer 13

• Phallic Stage of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
• James Q Wilson

Question 14

3 Examples of Androcentrism

Answer 14

• APA list of 100 most influential psychologists of 20th century
• Objection of pre-menstrual syndrome
• Brescoll and Uhlmann study

Question 15

Androcentrism Example - APA List of 100 Most Influential Psychologists of 20th Century - 2 Points

Answer 15

• American Psychological Association published a list of the 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century which only included 6 women
• Suggests psychology has traditionally been a subject produced by men, for men, about men

Question 16

Androcentrism Example - Objection of Pre-Menstrual Syndrome

Answer 16

Feminists have objected to the diagnostic category of pre-menstrual syndrome on the grounds that it medicalises women’s emotions by explaining these on hormonal terms

Question 17

Androcentrism Example - Brescoll and Uhlmann

Answer 17

Men’s anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures

Question 18

Gender Bias A03 - Biological Vs Social Explanation - 6 Points

Answer 18

• Gender differences are presented as fixed and enduring when they are not
• Maccoby and Jacklin - presented the findings of several gender studies which conducted that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability
• Suggested these differences are ‘hardwired’ into the brain before birth, which then became widely reported as fact
• Dapha et al - used brain scanning and found no such sex differences in brain structure or processing
• Possible that the data from Maccoby and Jacklin was popularised because it fitted existing stereotypes of girls as ‘speakers’ and boys as ‘doers’
• Suggests we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they might be explained better as social stereotypes

Question 19

Gender Bias A03 - Counterpoint to Biological Vs Social Explanation - 4 Points

Answer 19

• Doesn’t mean psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain
• Research by Ingalhalikar et al suggests that the popular myth that women are better at multi-tasking may have some biological truth to it
• Seems a women’s brain may benefit from better connections between the right and left hemisphere than on a man’s brain
• Suggests that there are may be biological differences but we still should be wary of exaggerating the effect they may have in behaviour

Question 20

Gender Bias A03 - Sexism in Research - 5 Points

Answer 20

• Problems of sexism in the research process, and women still remain underrepresented in university departments (particularly in science)
• Murphy et al - lecturers in psychology departments are more likely to be men
• Means research is more likely to be conducted by men and this may disadvantage female participants
• Nicolson et al - a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks
• Means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased

Question 21

Gender Bias A03 - Gender Biased Research - 5 Points

Answer 21

• Research challenging gender bias may not be published
• Formanowicz et al - analysed more than 1000 articles relating to gender bias published over 8 years, and found that research on this subject is funded less often and published by less prestigious journals
• Fewer scholars become aware of it or apply it within their own work
• Researchers argued that this still held true when gender-bias was compared with other forms of bias and when other factors were controlled, such as gender of the author and methodology used
• Suggests gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias

Question 22

Gender Bias A03 - Understanding Bias - 5 Points

Answer 22

• Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to change negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices
• Tarvis - “it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal”
• Means gender-bias in research may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women
• Many modern researches now recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have eon the nature of their work (known as reflexivity)
• Rather than seeing bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial aspect of the research process

Question 22

Definition of Cultural Bias

Answer 22

A tendency to interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences have on behaviour

Question 23

Definition of Ethnocentrism

Answer 23

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture

Question 24

Definition of Cultural Relativism

Answer 24

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

Question 25

2 Examples of Ethnocentrism

Answer 25

• TSS in Attachment Research
• Takashi

Question 26

Ethnocentrism Example - The Strange Situation in Attachment Research - 3 Points

Answer 26

• Criticised for only reflecting Western norms and values
• Suggested ideal attachment type was characterised by the babies showing moderate amounts of distress when left alone by their primary carer
• This led to misinterpretations of child-rearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from American norms

Question 27

Ethnocentrism Example - Takashi - 2 Points

Answer 27

• Japanese infants were more likely to be classes as insecurely attached because they showed considerable distress when separated
• Findings were most likely because Japanese mothers are very rarely separated from their infants

Question 28

Definition of Etic Approach

Answer 28

An approach that looks at behaviour from outside a given culture, and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal

Question 29

Definition of Emic Approach

Answer 29

An approach that looks at behaviour inside a given culture, and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 30

Cultural Relativism - 4 Points

Answer 30

• Berry has drawn a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour
• Berry argues that psychology has often been guilty of an etic approach
• Psychology argues that theories, models, concepts etc are universal, when they actually came out though etic research inside a single culture
• Suggests that psychologists should be much more mindful of cultural relativism of their research and being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research

Question 31

2 Examples of Cultural Relativism

Answer 31

• The Strange Situation in Attachment
• Definitions of Abnormality in Psychopathology

Question 32

Cultural Bias A03 - Classic Studies - 4 Points

Answer 32

• Many of the most influential studies in psychology are culturally biased
• Replications of these studies in other countries produced different findings than the original studies
• Smith and Bond - Asch-type experiments in collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity than the original studies in the USA
• Suggests our understanding of topics such as social influence should only be appleid to individualist cultures

Question 33

Cultural Bias A03 - Classic Studies Counterpoint - 3 Points

Answer 33

• However, in an age of increased media globalisation, it is argued that the individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies
• Takano and Osaka found that 14/15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism, describing the distinction as lazy and simplistic
• Suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research

Question 34

Cultural Bias A03 - Cultural Psychology - 5 Points

Answer 34

• One strength is the emergence of cultural psychology
• According to Cohen, it is the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience
• This is an emerging field and incorporates work from research indisciplines including anthropology, sociology and political science
• Cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach and conducting research from inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally-based techniques
• Suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias, and are taking steps to avoid it

Question 35

Cultural Bias A03 - Ethnic Stereotyping - 5 Points

Answer 35

• Gould explained how the first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US, when psychologists used the opportunity of WW1to pilot their IQ tests on 1.75 million army recruits
• Many of the items on the tests were ethnocentric, and the results were that recruits from south-eastern Europe and African-Americans received the lowest scores
• The poor performance of these groups was used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of particular cultural and ethnic groups
• Ethnic minorities were deemed ‘mentally unfit’ and ‘feeble-minded’ in comparison to the white majority and were denied educational and professional opportunities
• This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultural and ethnic groups

Question 36

Cultural Bias A03 - Relativism Vs Universality - 4 Points

Answer 36

• One benefit of cross-cultural research is that it may challenge dominant individualistic ways of thinking and viewing the world
• Being able to see that some of the knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not hardwired may provide a better understanding of human nature
• However, it should not be assumed that all of psychology is culturally relative
• Ekman suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world

Question 37

Cultural Bias Statistics - 4 Points

Answer 37

• In 1962, 64% of the world’s psychology researchers were American
• In a 1991 textbook on social-psychology, 94% of the studies were conducted in North America
• In 2010, a review of hundreds of studies in a leading psychology journal found that 68% of research participants were from the US and 96% from industrialised nations
• WEIRD people are the group most likely to be studied

Question 38

What Does WEIRD Stand For?

Answer 38

Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich, Democracies

Question 39

Definition of Free Will

Answer 39

The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviours/thoughts are not determined by biological external factors

Question 40

Definition of Determinism

Answer 40

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external factors, so free will is an illusion

Question 41

Definition of Hard Determinism

Answer 41

The view that all behaviour is caused by internal or external factors, so free will is an illusion

Question 42

Definition of Soft Determinism

Answer 42

The view that behaviour may be caused by internal/external factors, but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities

Question 43

Definition of Biological Determinism

Answer 43

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control

Question 44

Definition of Environmental Determinism

Answer 44

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control

Question 45

Definition of Psychic Determinism

Answer 45

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control

Question 46

Free Will - 3 Points

Answer 46

• A belief in free will does not deny that there may be biological and environmental forces that exert some influence on behaviour
• Implies that we are able to reject these forces if we wish because we are in control of our thoughts/behaviour
• Advocated by the humanistic approach

Question 47

What are the 2 Ends of the Determinism Debate?

Answer 47

Hard determinism and soft determinism

Question 48

What are the 3 Types of Determinism

Answer 48

• Biological Determinism
• Environmental Determinism
• Psychic Determinism

Question 49

Hard Determinism - 2 Points

Answer 49

• Sometimes referred to as ‘fatalism’
• Assumes that everything we think and do is dictated by internal or external forces we cannot control

Question 50

Soft Determinism - 2 Points

Answer 50

• Put forward by philosopher William James
• Important feature of cognitive approach

Question 51

Biological Determinism - 2 Points

Answer 51

• Emphasised in biological approach
• Recognise the mediating influence of the environment on our biological structures

Question 52

Environmental Determinism - 2 Points

Answer 52

• Skinner argued that all behaviour is the result of conditioning
• Our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives

Question 53

Psychic Determinism - 2 Points

Answer 53

• Linked with psychodynamic approach
• Freud emphasised the influence of biological drives and instincts

Question 54

Free Will and Determinism A03 - Practical Value - 3 Points

Answer 54

• Thinking we exercise free choice can improve our mental health
• Roberts et al - looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism (external LoC)
• Found that these adolescents were at significantly greater risk of developing depression

Question 55

Free Will and Determinism A03 - Research Evidence - 5 Points

Answer 55

• Brain scanning evidence supports determinism
• Libet et al - instructed participants to choose a random moment to flick their wrist, whilst he measured activity in their brain (readiness potential)
• Participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move
• Found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around 1/2 second before the participant consciously felt they had decided to move
• May be interpreted as meaning that even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them

Question 56

Free Will and Determinism A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

Answer 56

• Libet’s findings are not surprising
• Just because the action comes before the conscious awareness of the decision to act, just that the decision to act took time to reach consciousness
• Our conscious awareness of the decision is simply a ‘read out’ of our unconscious decision-making
• Suggests this evidence is not appropriate as a challenge to free-will

Question 57

Free Will and Determinism A03 - The Law - 4 Points

Answer 57

• The hard determinist stance is that individual choices are not the cause of behaviour, which is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates
• In a court of law, offenders are held responsible for their actions
• The main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised their free will in committing the crime, expect in extreme instances
• This suggests that determinist arguments do not work in real-life

Question 58

Free Will and Determinism A03 - Do We Want Determinism? - 4 Points

Answer 58

• Determinist approaches helped establish psychology as a science
• Hard determinism has produced many effective real world applications, including therapies and behavioural interventions
• But, free will has intuitive appeal
• Free will may be liberating for some people in terms of ‘not accepting one’s fate’, such as a history of mental illness or criminal activty

Question 59

Definition of Idiographic Approach

Answer 59

An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour

Question 60

Definition of Nomothetic Approach

Answer 60

An approach that aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

Question 61

Idiographic Approach - 3 Points

Answer 61

• Research is small and often a case study
• Might include information from family, friends, or others
• Focus on the detail

Question 62

Qualitative Research in the Idiographic Approach - 3 Points

Answer 62

• Participants would be interviewed in depth and the focus may be on a particular part of human behaviour
• Data is then analysed and themes are identified
• Conclusions may help other people going through similar experiences and may help mental health professionals determine the best practice

Question 63

Idiographic Examples in Psychology - 5 Points

Answer 63

• Most associated with the humanistic and psychodynamic approaches
• Rogers sought to explain the process of self development
• Derived from in-depth conversations with clients in therapy
• Freud’s careful observations of individuals was the basis of his explanations of human nature
• Little Hans case study was used to explain how a phobia might develop

Question 64

Nomothetic Approach - 2 Points

Answer 64

• Create general principles of behaviour which could then be applied in individual situations
• Seek to quantify behaviour

Question 65

Quantitative Research in the Nomothetic Approach - 3 Points

Answer 65

• Closely fits traditional models of the scientific method in psychology
• Hypotheses are formulated and samples are assessed
• The numerical data produced is analysed for its statistical significance

Question 66

Nomothetic Examples in Psychology - 3 Points

Answer 66

• Behaviourist and biological approaches are nomothetic
• Skinner studied animals to develop the general laws of learning
• Sperry’s split-brain research involved repeated testing and was part of the basis of understanding hemispheric lateralisation

Question 67

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches - Subjectivity VS Objectivity - 5 Points

Answer 67

• Key difference between these two approaches is how each relates to subjectivity and objectivity
• Nomothetic approach focus on objectivity
• Laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised and objective way
• Researchers working with the idiographic approach tend to believe that objectivity is not possible in psychology
• Focuses more on subjectivity

Question 68

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches A03 - Complete Account - 5 Points

Answer 68

• Idiographic approach contributes to the nomothetic approach
• Idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation, which provides a global description of one individual
• May complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or by challenging these laws
• Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding
• Suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may still help form ‘scientific’ laws of behaviour

Question 69

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

Answer 69

• Supporters of the idiographic approach should still acknowledge the narrow and restricted nature of their work
• Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples because there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour
• Methods associated with the idiographic approach tend to be least scientific, in that conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher and are open to bias
• Suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic research

Question 70

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches A03 - Scientific Credibility - 4 Points

Answer 70

• Both approaches fit with the aims of science
• Processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences
• However, researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods
• Modern qualitative researchers are careful to reflect upon there own biases and preconceptions as part of the research process

Question 71

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches A03 - Losing the Person - 5 Points

Answer 71

• Nomothetic approach looses the understanding of the individual
• Preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of ‘losing the whole person’ within psychology
• Knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells its little about what life for someone who has been diagnosed with the disorder
• But understanding the subjective experience of schizophrenia might well prove useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options
• Suggests the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to ‘experience’

Question 72

Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches A03 - Distinct or Complimentary? - 4 Points

Answer 72

• Each approach is appropriate in different research situations for different aims
• In attachment, Schaffer’s stages describe general stages of development (nomothetic) whereas case studies of extreme neglect highlight the subjective experience of never having formed an attachment (idiographic)
• There is a sense in which the approaches are just two ends of a continuum
• Millon explains that when diagnosing personality disorders, clinicians begin with general nomothetic criteria, then use this to focus on the individual and their unique needs (idiographic)

Question 73

Definition of Ethical Implications

Answer 73

The consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded

Question 74

Definition of Social Sensitivity

Answer 74

Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 75

Who Defined Social Sensitivity?

Answer 75

Sieber and Stanley

Question 76

2 Examples of Ethical Implications and Social Sensitivity

Answer 76

• Research on LTM on a student population
• Study on depression

Question 77

Ethical Implications and Social Sensitivity Example - Research on LTM on a Student Population - 2 Points

Answer 77

• Unlikely to have consequences for individual participants or broader social groups
• Unlikely to be consequences for social policy

Question 78

Ethical Implications and Social Sensitivity Example - Study on Depression - 4 Points

Answer 78

• Likely to have consequences for individual participants, wider social groups, and social policy
• An individual participant, may reveal personal information that is later accessed by a prospective employer
• Findings from the study could suggest that people with depression may never fully recover an therefore are a risk as an employee
• Could inform social policy such as preferred treatment options provided by the NHS

Question 79

3 Ethical Implications from the Research Process

Answer 79

• Research question
• Dealing with participants
• The way findings are used

Question 80

Ethical Implications from the Research Process - Research Question - 2 Points

Answer 80

• Sieber and Stanley warn that the way in which research questions are phased and investigated may influence the way findings are interpreted
• Kitzinger and Coyle note how research into relationships has been Quilty of a form of heterosexual bias within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against the heterosexual norms

Question 81

Ethical Implications from the Research Process - Dealing with Participants - 2 Points

Answer 81

• Issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm may be especially important in socially sensitive research
• In a study of domestic violence, participants may worry that an ex-partner will find out about the study and describing their experiences may be very stressful

Question 82

Ethical Implications from the Research Process - The Way Findings are Used - 4 Points

Answer 82

• Researchers should consider in advance how research findings may be used, which may impact what data they collect
• Findings from research may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices
• Sensitive information is exactly what the media tends to be interested in and publicise
• Owen’s research on people in a minimally conscious state received enormous media attention at the time, as it appeared he had made contact with patients who were thought to be ‘unreachable’

Question 83

Ethical Implications A03 - Benefits for Groups - 6 Points

Answer 83

• Socially sensitive research can have benefits for the group being studied, such as homosexuality
• In 1952, the DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a ‘sociopathic personality disorder’ but finally removed it in 1973
• This change has been credited to the Kinsey et al report which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5,000 men about their sexual behaviour
• Concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
• Also included data on interviews with 6,000 women and caused outrage at the time because these were topics that no one discussed
• Illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive

Question 84

Ethical Implications A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

Answer 84

• In some studies, there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied
• Research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a ‘criminal gene’
• If this is true, does it mean that someone could be convincted on the basis that they have this gene, or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible?
• Suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there should be consideration into the possible outcomes and their consequences

Question 85

Ethical Implications A03 - Real World Application - 6 Points

Answer 85

• Certain groups, such as policy makers, rely on research related to socially sensitive issues
• The government looks to research when developing important social policies related to child-care, education, mental health provisions, and crime
• Clearly preferable to base these policies on scientific research rather than politically-motivated views
• In the UK, there are groups, such as the ONS (Office of National Statistics), who are responsible for collecting, analysing, and disseminating objective statistics about the UK’s economy, society and population
• This data is also used in psychological research
• This means that psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics

Question 86

Ethical Implications A03 - Poor Research Design - 7 Points

Answer 86

• Poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which will continue to have an impact
• Burt was influential in establishing the 11+ exam which determines what type of secondary school a child goes to, which has impacts on their later life
• At the time, the government based its policies on Burt’s twins studies, which showed that intelligence was highly heritable and could be detected by age 11
• Johnson found discrepancies in Burt’s data, which revealed that much of it was fake
• The 11+ exam, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence, remained for many years, and is still used in some parts of the UK
• Access to many independent schools is based on a child’s performance in an entrance exam taken in Year 6 and is likely based on the same reasoning
• Therefore, research on socially sensitive topics need to be planned with care to ensure the findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people

Question 87

Ethical Implications A03 - To Do or Not To Do - 4 Points

Answer 87

• One way to avoid dealing with socially sensitive research is to avoid doing it
• American Psychological Association reported that ethical committees approved 95% of non-sensitive proposals that didn’t include ethical problems, whereas sensitive proposals were only approved about 50% of the time
• Sieber and Stanley advised that ignoring such topics is not a responsible approach
• One possibility is to follow qualitative researchers who are more up-front about their own biases and are reflexive in their approach

Question 88

Definition of Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 88

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited acquired characteristics

Question 89

Definition of Heredity

Answer 89

The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

Question 90

Definition of Environment

Answer 90

Any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic

Question 91

Definition of Interactionist Approach

Answer 91

A way to explain the development of behaviour in terms of a range of factors, including both biological and psychological ones

Question 92

Interactionist Approach Example - 4 Points

Answer 92

• Bowlby claimed that a baby’s attachment type is determined by warmth and continuity of parental love
• Kagan proposed that a baby’s temperament also affects the attachment relationship
• Thus, nature create nurture, so environment and heredity interact
• Psychologists are now ore likely to ask what combination of each influence there is

Question 93

Definition of Diathesis-Stress Model

Answer 93

A theory that suggests behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability, which is only expressed when couple with a biological or environmental trigger

Question 94

Definition of Diathesis-Stress Model

Answer 94

A theory that suggests behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability, which is only expressed when couple with a biological or environmental trigger

Question 95

Diathesis-Stress Model Example - 2 Points

Answer 95

• A person who inherits genetic vulnerability for OCD may not develop the disorder
• When combined with a psychological trigger, this may result in the disorder appearing

Question 96

Definition of Epigenetic

Answer 96

Refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves

Question 97

Epigenetic - 5 Points

Answer 97

• It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment
• Aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter leave ‘marks’ in our DNA which switch genes on or off
• This explains why factors, such as smoking, have a lifelong influence even after you stop, because they have changed the way your genes are expressed
• These epigenetic changes may go on and influence the genetic codes of future generations
• Introduces a third element into the debate - the life experience of previous generations

Question 98

Nature - 3 Points

Answer 98

• Refers to inherited influences, or heredity
• Early nativists, such as Descartes, argued that all human characteristics are innate
• Both psychological and physical characteristics are determined by biological factors

Question 99

Nurture - 5 Points

Answer 99

• Refers to the influence of experience and the environment
• Empiricists, like John Locke, argued that the mind is a tabula rasa which is then shaped by the environment
• Lerner identified different levels of environment - prenatal and postnatal
• Prenatal includes physical and psychological influences on a foetus
• Development is influenced postnatally, such as social conditions

Question 100

Measuring Nature and Nurture - 4 Points

Answer 100

• Concordance provides an estimate about the inheritability of a trait
• A figure of 0.01 means genes contribute almost nothing to individual differences, and 1.0 means genes are the only reason for individual differences
• Plomin - general figure for heritability in IQ is about 0.5 across multiple studies in varying populations
• Means about half of a person’s intelligence is determined by genetic factors and the other other half must be environmental

Question 101

Definition of Concordance

Answer 101

The degree to which two people are similar on a particular trait that can be represented by a correlation coefficient

Question 102

Definition of Heritability

Answer 102

The proportion of differences between individuals in a population, with regards to a particular trait, that is due to genetic variation

Question 103

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Adoption Studies - 5 Points

Answer 103

• Adoption studies are useful because they separate the competing influences of nature and nurture
• If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, this suggests the environment is their bigger influence
• Vice-versa, if they are more similar to their biological parents
• Rhee and Waldman - a meta-analysis of adoption studies found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression
• Shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture

Question 103

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Adoption Studies - 5 Points

Answer 103

• Adoption studies are useful because they separate the competing influences of nature and nurture
• If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, this suggests the environment is their bigger influence
• Vice-versa, if they are more similar to their biological parents
• Rhee and Waldman - a meta-analysis of adoption studies found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression
• Shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture

Question 104

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Counterpoint - 5 Points

Answer 104

• Research suggests that this approach may be misguided, and nature and nurture are not two entities that can be simply pulled apart
• Plomin - people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’
• A naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable with children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly
• Then, their chosen companions further influence their development, known as ‘niche-picking’
• Suggests that it doesn’t make sense to look at evidence of either nature or nurture

Question 105

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Epigenetic Support - 5 Points

Answer 105

• Example of how environmental effects can span generations presumably through epigenetic effects comes from WW2
• In 1944, the Nazis blocked the distribution of food to the Dutch people, and 22,000 died of starvation - known as the Dutch Hunger Winter
• Susser and Lin reported that women who became pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies
• These babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up compared to more typical population rates
• Supports the view that the life experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic ‘markers’ that influence the health of their children

Question 106

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Real World Application - 5 Points

Answer 106

• Research suggests that OCR is a highly inheritable mental disorder
• Nestadt et al suggest OCD has a heritability rate of 0.76
• This understanding can inform genetic counselling, because it is important to understand that high heritability does not mean it is inevitable that they will develop the disorder
• Means that people who have a high genetic risk of OCD can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this
• Shows that the debate is not just theoretical, but that it is important to understand the interaction between nature and nurture

Question 107

Nature Nurture Debate A03 - Implications of the Debate - 5 Points

Answer 107

• Nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’, in that out genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, with little environmental input
• This determinist stance has led controversy, such as linking ethnicity, genetics and intelligence, and the application of eugenic policies
• Empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions
• Behavioural shaping has had practical application in therapy
• Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored

Question 108

Definition of Holism

Answer 108

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an individual system rather than its constituent parts

Question 109

Definition of Reductionism

Answer 109

The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts

Question 110

Definition of Levels of Explanation

Answer 110

The idea that there are several ways that behaviour can be explained

Question 111

3 Levels of Explanations

Answer 111

• Lowest level - physiological and biological explanations
• Middle level - psychological explanations
• Highest level - social and cultural explanations

Question 112

Definition of Biological Reductionism

Answer 112

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour at the lowest biological level

Question 113

Definition of Environmental Reductionism

Answer 113

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience

Question 114

Holism - 4 Points

Answer 114

• Looks at a system as a whole, and sees any attempt to subdivide behaviour or experiences into smaller units as inappropriate
• This was the view of Gestalt psychologists, who argued that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• Believe that knowing about the parts does not help us understand the essence of that person
• Example - humanistic psychology focuses on the individual’s experiences, which is not the something that can be reduced

Question 115

Reductionism - 2 Points

Answer 115

• Seeks to analyse behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts
• Based on the scientific principle of parsimony, where all phenomena should be explained using the simplest principles and lowest levels of explanation

Question 116

Levels of Explanations - Examples in OCD - 7 Points

Answer 116

• Socio-cultural level - OCD interrupts social relationships
• Psychological level - the person’s experience of anxiety
• Physical level - movements, such as washing hands
• Environmental/behavioural level - learning experiences
• Physiological level - abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes
• Neurochemical level - underproduction of serotonin
• Each level is more reductionist than the one before

Question 117

Biological Reductionism - 4 Points

Answer 117

• Includes the neurochemical and physiological levels, and evolution and genetic influences
• Based on the principle that we are biological organisms, thus behaviour is at some biological level
• Biologically reductionist arguments often work backwards
• Example - drugs that increase serotonin have been found to be effective in treating OCD, therefore serotonin may be a cause of OCD

Question 118

Environmental Reductionism - 3 Points

Answer 118

• Behaviourist approach is built on environmental reductionism
• Explain behaviour in terms of conditioning, which is focused on simple stimulus-response links, reducing behaviour to these basic elements
• Example - learning theory of attachment reduces the idea of love to a learned association between the person doing the feeding and the food, resulting in pleasure

Question 119

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Lack of Practical Value - 3 Points

Answer 119

• Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex
• Example - if we accept that there are many different factors that contribute to depression, then if becomes difficult to know which is most influential
• Then it becomes difficult to know which to prioritise as the basis of theory

Question 120

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Scientific Approach - 5 Points

Answer 120

• Reductionist approach often forms the basis of a scientific approach
• To conduct well controlled research, we need to operationalise the variables to be studied, in order to break down target behaviours down into constituent parts
• Makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is objective and reliable
• Example - TSS in attachment operationalised component behaviours, such as separation anxiety
• Gives psychology greater credibility, by placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences

Question 121

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Counterpoint - 5 Points

Answer 121

• Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena, leading to reduced validity
• Explanations that operate at the level of the gene or neurotransmitter do not include analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs
• Example - the physiological processes in pointing one’s finger is the same regardless of the context
• An analysis of these will not tell us why the finger is pointed - it could be to draw attention to something or as an act of aggression
• Suggests that reductionist explanations can only ever from part of an explanation

Question 122

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Higher Level - 5 Points

Answer 122

• Some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level
• There are often aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of the individual group members
• Example - the effects of conformity to social roles in the prisoners and guards in the SPE could not be understood by observing the participants as individuals
• It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important
• There is no conformity gene that we know of, so social processes like conformity can only be explained at the level at which they occur

Question 123

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Higher Level - 5 Points

Answer 123

• Some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level
• There are often aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of the individual group members
• Example - the effects of conformity to social roles in the prisoners and guards in the SPE could not be understood by observing the participants as individuals
• It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important
• There is no conformity gene that we know of, so social processes like conformity can only be explained at the level at which they occur

Question 124

Holism and Reductionism A03 - Brain and Mind - 4 Points

Answer 124

• A reductionist account of consciousness would argue that thoughts are simply the result of what happens in our brain, which is the basis of cognitive neuroscience
• Neuroscientists struggle to explain the subjective experience of the same neural process
• Example - thinking about the colour blue involves the same region and activity in the brain as thinking about the colour red, yet the though we experience is different
• Known as the ‘explanatory gap’ in brain science according to Levine, and may suggest that thinking is at least one step beyond what is happening in the brain