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Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of Introspection

A

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

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2
Q

Who was the First Person to Write a Psychology Book and Academic Journal?

A

Wundt

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3
Q

Who Opened the First Psychology Lab?

A

Wundt

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4
Q

Where was the First Psychology Lab?

A

Leipzig

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5
Q

Why is Wundt Seen as the Father of Psychology?

A

Introduced introspection to study the human mind systematically

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6
Q

What is Structuralism?

A

Consciousness divided into three categories - thoughts, images, sensations

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7
Q

Wundt A03 - 3 Evaluation Points

A
  • Controlled Environment
  • General laws are not possible as all introspections are subjective
  • Wundt’s Contribution (father of psychology)
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8
Q

What is the Main Characteristic of 1900s Behaviourism?

A

Researchers conducted controlled experiments on behaviours that were directly observable

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9
Q

What are the Two Main Characteristics of the 1950s Cognitive Approach?

A
  • Made the study of the mind legitimate and scientific
    -?
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10
Q

What are the Two Main Characteristics of the 1980s Biological Approach?

A
  • Observable behaviours studied using controlled measures
  • Also genetic testing studies relationship between genes and behaviour
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11
Q

Psychology as a Science A03 - 3 Evaluation Points

A
  • Learning, cognitive, and biological approaches all use scientific methods
  • Subjective data as humanistic and psychodynamic approaches rely on unscientific case studies and are hampered by demand characteristics
  • The question of whether psychology has agreed methods and assumptions is open to debate
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12
Q

Behaviourism - 4 Assumptions

A
  • Behaviour learned from environment
  • Behaviour determined by reinforcement and punishment of past experiences
  • Observable behaviour should be studied
  • Should investigate the laws of learning
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13
Q

Behaviourism - What are We Born as?

A

A blank state - ‘tabula rasa’

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14
Q

Definition of Operant Conditioning

A

Learning due to consequences of voluntary behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement and punishment

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15
Q

Definition of Classical Conditioning

A

Learning due to associatipn of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned reflex response

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16
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - 2 Points

A

Food -> Salivation
Bell -> No Salivation

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17
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Food?

A

Unconditioned stimulus

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18
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Salivation?

A

Unconditioned response

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19
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Bell?

A

Neutral stimulus

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20
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the No Salivation?

A

No conditioned response

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21
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning

A

Bell + food -> Salivation

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22
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Bell?

A

Neutral Stimulus

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23
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Food?

A

Unconditioned stimulus

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24
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Salivation?

A

No conditioned response

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25
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning

A

Bell -> Salivation

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26
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning - What is the Bell?

A

Conditioned stimulus

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27
Q

Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning - What is the Salivation?

A

Conditioned response

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28
Q

Skinner’s Box - 2 Points

A
  • Rat in box with a lever that delivers food pellet
  • The rat learned that pressing would give reward and would repeat the behaviour so had been positively reinforced.
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29
Q

Definition of Reinforcement

A

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated

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30
Q

Definition of Positive Reinforcement

A

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they happen

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31
Q

Definition of Negative Reinforcement

A

Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they stop

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32
Q

Definition of Punishment

A

Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are unpleasant when they happen

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33
Q

Definition of Continuous of Reinforcement

A

The desired behaviour is reinforced every single time is occurs, and may result in a stronger response

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34
Q

Definition of Partial Reinforcement

A

The response is reinforced only part of the time and has a weaker effect

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35
Q

Definition of Variable Reinforcement

A

Behaviour is reinforced after an unpredictable period of time or number of responses

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36
Q

Behaviourist Approach A03 - Well Controlled Research - 4 Points

A
  • Based on well controlled research
  • Behaviourists focused on measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab conditions
  • By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus/response units, all other extraneous were removed
  • Suggests behaviourism has scientific credibility
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37
Q

Behaviourist Approach A03 - Influence of Human Thought - 3 Points

A
  • May have oversimplified the learning process
  • May have ignored influence of human though on learning
  • Suggests learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone
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38
Q

Behaviourist Approach A03 - Real World Application - 4 Points

A
  • Principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems
  • Operant conditioning is used in prisons and psychiatric wards
  • Classical conditioning has been used in treatment of phobias
  • increases of value of behaviourism because it has widespread applications
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39
Q

Behaviourist Approach A03 - Environmental Determinism - 4 Points

A
  • Sees all behaviour as condition by past conditioning experiences
  • Skinner suggested everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
  • When something happens we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but Skinner suggests our past conditioning history determined the outcome
  • Ignores any influence of free will on behaviour
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40
Q

Behaviourist Approach A03 - Ethical Issues - 2 Points

A
  • Many have questioned the ethics of conducting studies like Skinner’s
  • Animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry
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41
Q

Why is SLT Different to Conditioning?

A

SLT is not just about learning, it includes cognitive processes such as watching, paying attention, remembering, choice of a role etc

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42
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement - 2 Points

A
  • Indirect learning takes place when an individual observes the behaviour of others
  • Learner may imitate this behaviour but imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be reinforced
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43
Q

Definition of Vicarious Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

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44
Q

Bandura et al - Bobo Doll Study - 4 Points

A
  • Recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll
  • Adult it doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
  • Children behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and other toys
  • Watched and modelled (vicarious reinforcement)
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45
Q

Definition of Meditational Processes

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

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46
Q

What are the 4 Meditational Processes that were Identified by Bandura?

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Motor Reproduction
  • Motivation
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47
Q

What is Attention as a Meditational Process?

A

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours

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48
Q

What is Retention as a Meditational Process?

A

How well the behaviour is remembered

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49
Q

What is Motor Reproduction as a Meditational Process?

A

The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

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50
Q

What is Motivation as a Meditational Process?

A

The will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

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51
Q

Definition of Social Learning Theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

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52
Q

Definition of Imitation

A

Copying the behaviour of others

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53
Q

Definition of Identification

A

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model

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54
Q

Definition of Modelling from the Observers Perspective

A

Imitating the behaviour of a role model

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55
Q

Definition of Modelling from the Model’s Perspective

A

The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer

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55
Q

Definition of Modelling from the Model’s Perspective

A

The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer

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56
Q

Identification - 5 Points

A
  • People are more likely to imitate people they identify with (identification)
  • The person they identify with is called a role model and the process of imitating a role model is called modelling
  • The behaviour of a role model is also called modelling
  • A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have a higher status
  • Role models may not be physically present in the environment
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57
Q

The Role of Meditational Processes - 4 Points

A
  • Attention and Retention relate to the learning of behaviour
  • Motor reproduction and motivation relate to the performance of behaviour
  • Unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour does not need to occur together
  • Observed behaviours may be stored and repeated at a later stage
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58
Q

2 Strengths of SLT

A
  • Recognises Cognitive Factors
  • Real-world application
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59
Q

3 Weaknesses of SLT

A
  • Too little reference to biological factors
  • Based on evidence from lab studies (demand characteristics)
  • Reciprocal determinism
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60
Q

Definition of the Cognitive Approach

A

How our mental processes affect behaviour

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61
Q

Definition of Internal Mental Processes

A

‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

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62
Q

Definition of Schema

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, and are developed from experience

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63
Q

Definition of Inference

A

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

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64
Q

Definition of Cognitive Neuroscience

A

The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

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65
Q

3 Assumptions from the Cognitive Approach

A
  • Internal mental process can and should be studied scientifically
  • Main focuses are memory, perception and thinking
  • These cannot be observed and therefore cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour
66
Q

Schemas - 5 Points

A
  • “Packets of information” that help us organise and interpret information
  • Based on our previous experiences
  • Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours like grasping and sucking
  • Schemas develop and evolve with experience
  • Become more sophisticated and detailed
67
Q

Bugelski and Alampay - 4 Points

A
  • Two groups of participants were shown a sequence of pictures, either different faces or different animals
  • Then shown ambiguous rat-man picture
  • Participants who saw the faces were more likely to see the drawing as a man
  • Participants who saw the animals were more likely to see the drawing as a man
68
Q

Strength of Schemas

A

Useful by helping us take shortcuts in thinking

69
Q

Weakness of Schemas

A

Can lead to faulty conclusions and unhelpful behaviours

70
Q

Theoretical Models - 2 Points

A
  • These are simplified representations based on current research evidence
  • Often in picture form, represented by boxes and arrow that represent flow direction and stages
71
Q

Computer Models - 4 Points

A
  • The development of computers and computer programming has led to a focus on the way that sensory information is passed through the system
  • Information is passed through the senses, encoded into memory and then combined with previously stored information to complete a task
  • These have proved useful in the development of AI
  • If we programme a computer with instructions and it produces the same output as a human, it then suggests similar process are going on in the human mind
72
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience - 3 Points

A
  • Advances in brain scanning technology means scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of processing
  • Also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders
73
Q

Cognitive Approach A03 - Scientific Method - 3 Points

A
  • Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes are at work
  • Involved the use of lab studies
  • The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enable the two fields of biology and cognitive neuroscience to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study
74
Q

Cognitive Approach A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

A
  • Relies on inference and not direct observation
  • Can be too abstract or theoretical
  • Research studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli
  • May lack external validity
75
Q

Cognitive Approach A03 - Real World Application - 3 Points

A
  • Been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
  • Important contribution in AI and robotics
  • Also applied to treatment of depression and improved reliability in EWT
76
Q

Cognitive Approach A03 - Machine Reductionism - 4 Points

A
  • Based on machine reductionism
  • Similarities between human mind and computers
  • Computer analogy has been criticised by many
  • Ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information
77
Q

Cognitive Approach A03 - Soft Determinism

A

View that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors, but we also can exert our free will at times

78
Q

Definition of the Psychodynamic Approach

A

A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience

79
Q

Definition of the Unconscious

A

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour

80
Q

Definition of the Id

A

Entirely unconscious, and is made up of selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification

81
Q

Definition of the Ego

A

The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego

82
Q

Definition of the Superego

A

The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self

83
Q

Definition of Defence Mechanisms

A

Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the Superego

84
Q

Definition of the Psychosexual Stages

A

Five developmental stages that all children pass through, and at each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development

85
Q

The Role of the Unconscious - 4 Points

A
  • Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious - biological drives and instincts that direct our behaviour
  • Contain threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed
  • Can be accessed during dreams or slips of the tongue (parapraxes)
  • Under the surface of our mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired
86
Q

Id - 5 Points

A
  • Primitive part of our personality
  • Operates on pleasure principle
  • Mass of unconscious drives and instincts
  • Present at birth
  • Entirely selfish and demand gratification of its need
87
Q

Ego - 5 Points

A
  • Works on reality principle
  • Mediator between the two other parts of the personality
  • Develops around 2 y/o
  • Reduces conflict between the demands of the other two
  • Manages by employing a number of defence mechanisms
88
Q

Superego - 5 Points

A
  • Formed at the end of phallic stage
  • Internalised sense of right or wrong
  • Based on morality principle
  • Represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent
  • Punishes ego for wrongdoing through guilt
89
Q

Psychosexual Stages - 3 Points

A
  • Freud claimed that child development occurred in five stages
  • Each stage is marked by a conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next steps
  • Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation, where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through adult life
90
Q

What Age is the Oral Stage?

A

0 - 1 y/o

91
Q

What Age is the Anal Stage?

A

1 - 3 y/o

92
Q

What Age is the Phallic Stage?

A

3 - 6 y/o

93
Q

What Age is the Latency Stage?

A

7 - 13 y/o

94
Q

What Age is the Genital Stage?

A

Adolescence through to adult life

95
Q

What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages?

A
  • Oral
  • Anal
  • Phallic
  • Latency
  • Genital
96
Q

Oral Stage - 2 Points

A
  • Focus of pleasure is the mouth
  • Mother’s breast is object of desire
97
Q

Anal Stage - 2 Points

A
  • Focus of pleasure is the anus
  • Child gains pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces
98
Q

Phallic Stage - 2 Points

A
  • Focus of pleasure is genital area
  • Child experiences the oedipus or Electra complex
99
Q

Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Oral Stage

A

Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical

100
Q

Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Anal Stage - 2 Points

A
  • Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive
  • Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy
101
Q

Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Phallic Stage

A

Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

102
Q

Latency Stage

A

Earlier conflicts repressed

103
Q

Genital Stage

A

Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty

104
Q

Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Genital Stage

A

Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

105
Q

Defence Mechanisms - 2 Points

A
  • Involve some form of distortion of reality
  • As a long term solution, they are regarded as unhealthy and undesirable
106
Q

3 Examples of Defence Mechanisms

A
  • Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
  • Denial - refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
  • Displacement - transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion not a substitute target
107
Q

Oedipus complex - 5 Points

A
  • During Phallic stage
  • Boys develop incestous feelings towards their mother
  • Murderous hatred for father (rival in love)
  • Fearing castration, they repress their feelings and identify with their father (castration anxiety)
  • Take on his gender role and moral values
108
Q

Electra Complex - 5 Points

A
  • During Phallic stage
  • Desire father and hate mother
  • Penis is primary love object (penis envy)
  • Give up their desire for their father over time
  • Replaced with a desire for a baby and identify with their mother
109
Q

Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Real World Application - 5 Points

A
  • Introduced idea of psychotherapy - psychoanalysis
  • New therapy employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious
  • First attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
  • Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with
  • Basis of modern therapy practices
110
Q

Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

A
  • Freudian therapists have claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses
  • Regarded as harmful and inappropriate for those with more serious mental disorders
  • Many symptoms of schizophrenia mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
  • Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders
111
Q

Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Explanatory Power - 3 Points

A
  • Controversial theory, but has a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought
  • Psychodynamic approach has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development, and gender identity
  • Draws attention to the connection between experiences in childhood and our later development
112
Q

Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Untestable Concepts - 3 Points

A
  • Karl Popper - argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criteria of falsification
  • Freud’s ideas were based in the subjective study of single individuals, such as Little Hans, which makes it difficult to generalise
  • Suggests Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific
113
Q

Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Psychic Determinism - 3 Points

A
  • Suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood
  • Freud believed there was no such thing as an ‘accident’
  • Extreme view because it dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour
114
Q

4 Ways of Assessing the Unconscious

A
  • Dream analysis
  • Ink blots
  • Free association
  • Freudian slips
115
Q

Definition of Humanistic Psychology

A

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasis the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination

116
Q

Definition of Self-Actualisation

A

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfilling one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of

117
Q

What is the Hierarchy of Needs?

A

A five-levelled hierarchal sequence in which basic psychological needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved

118
Q

Definition of Self

A

The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’

119
Q

Definition of Congruence

A

The aim of Rogerian therapy, and is when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match

120
Q

Definition of Conditions of Worth

A

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children

121
Q

Humanistic Assumptions - 4 Points

A
  • Claims human beings are self-determining and have free will
  • People are still influenced by external and internal factors, but are also active agents who can determine their own development
  • Humanistic psychologists reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour
  • Person centred approach - psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
122
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - 3 Points

A
  • Maslow described a hierarchy of needs that motivate out behaviour
  • In order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation, a number of other deficiency needs must be first met
  • A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy once the current need in the sequence has been met
123
Q

Hierarchy of Needs

A

Self actualisation
Self-esteem
Love and belongingness
Safety and security
Physiological needs

124
Q

Self Actualisation - 6 Points

A
  • Represents uppermost level of hierarchy of needs
  • All four levels of hierarchy must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation and fulfil their potential
  • First applies to early development when a baby is first focused on physiological needs and applies throughout life
  • Regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human
  • Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated
  • Not everyone will manage this and there are important psychological factors that may prevent a person from reaching their potential
125
Q

The Self Congruence and Conditions of Worth - 5 Points

A
  • Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individuals concept of self must have congruence
  • If the gap is too big, the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth
  • To reduce this gap, Rogers developed client-centred therapy to help people cope with the problems of everyday living
  • Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults have roots in childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents
  • A parent who sets conditions of worth is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future
126
Q

Counselling - 5 Points

A
  • Rogers’ client-centred therapy led to the general approach of counselling, which is applied in may settings today
  • Rogers referred to these in therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as expert on their own condition
  • Therapy is non-directive and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive, and non-judgemental
  • An effective therapist should provide a client with 3 things - genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
127
Q

What is the Aim of Rogerian Therapy? - 3 Points

A
  • Increase the feelings of self-worth
  • Reduce the level of incongruence
  • Help the person to become a more full functioning
128
Q

Humanistic Psychology A03 - Not Reductionist - 3 Points

A
  • Rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components
  • Humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
  • This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context
129
Q

Humanistic Psychology A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points

A
  • Reductionist approach may be more scientific
  • Experiments reduce behaviour to variables
  • Humanist psychology has very few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measures
  • Short on empirical evidence to support its claims
130
Q

Humanistic Psychology A03 - Positive Approach - 3 Points

A
  • Optimistic Approach
  • Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition
  • See all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives
131
Q

Humanistic Psychology A03 - Western Cultural Bias - 4 Points

A
  • Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, are more associated with individualist cultures in the Western world
  • Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence
  • These cultures may not identify so easily with the ideas and values of humanistic psychology
  • This approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
132
Q

Humanistic Psychology A03 - Limited Explanation - 3 Points

A
  • Critics have argued that humanistic psychology has had relatively little impact on psychology or practical application in the real world, in comparison to other approaches
  • The behaviour has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas, rather than a comprehensive theory
  • On the other hand, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace.
133
Q

4 Examples of Self-Actualisation

A
  • Morality
  • Creativity
  • Spontaneously
  • Purpose
134
Q

3 Examples of Self-Esteem

A
  • Confidence
  • Achievement
  • Respect of others
135
Q

4 Examples of Love and Belongingness

A
  • Friendship
  • Family
  • Intimacy
  • Sense of connection
136
Q

5 Examples of Safety and Security

A
  • Health
  • Employment
  • Property
  • Family
  • Social stability
137
Q

6 Examples of Physiological Needs

A
  • Breathing
  • Food
  • Water
  • Clothing
  • Sleep
  • Shelter
138
Q

Definition of Biological Approach

A

Perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, affecting behaviour

139
Q

Definition of Biological Structure

A

Arrangements of parts to form an organ system or living thing

140
Q

Definition of Genes

A

Make up chromosomes and consist of DNA that codes physical features of an organism and psychological features (inherits)

141
Q

Definition of Neurochemistry

A

Relates to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

142
Q

Definition of Genotype

A

Genetic make-up

143
Q

Definition of Phenotype

A

How genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological characteristics

144
Q

Definition of Evolution

A

Changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over succeeding generations

145
Q

Biological Assumptions - 3 Points

A
  • Every psychological thing is at first biological, so we must look at biological processes and structures to fully understand human behaviour
  • The mind lives in the brain - thoughts, feelings, and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
  • Understanding brain structure and function can explain our behaviour and thoughts
146
Q

Genetic Basis of Behaviour - 4 Points

A
  • Behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics
  • Twin studies used to determine likelihood that certain traits have genetic basis and assess concordance rates between twins
  • If monozygotic twins have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins, it would suggest a genetic basis
  • This is because Mz twins share 100% of their DNA whilst Dz twins share 50%
147
Q

Genotype and Phenotype - 3 Points

A
  • Phenotype is influenced by the environment
  • Mz twins with the same genotype can express them differently
  • Illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept - much of our behaviour depends on interaction between inherited factors and the environment
148
Q

Evolution and Behaviour - 3 Points

A
  • Darwin’s 19th Century theory of natural selection says any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will continue in further generations
  • Similar to how farmers would select animals for breeding
  • In nature, this happens naturally - selection occurs because some traits give advantages in terms of survival and reproduction
149
Q

Biological Approach A03 - Scientific Methods of Investigations - 4 Points

A
  • Makes use of precise and highly objective methods
  • Includes scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs
  • With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and natural processes in ways that are not open to bias
  • Means biological approach is based on objective and reliable data
150
Q

Biological Approach A03 - Real Life Application - 3 Points

A
  • Increased understanding of neuro-chemical processes in the brain associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
  • Promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of serotonin in synapses in the brain
  • Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms
151
Q

Biological Approach A03 - Deterministic View of Behaviour - 3 Points

A
  • Sees human behaviour as generated by internal genetic causes we have no control over
  • The way in which an individual’s genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment
  • Crime/Twins
152
Q

5 Features of Science

A
  • Paradigms and paradigm shifts
  • Theory construction and hypothesis
  • Objectivity and the empirical method
  • Falsifiability
  • Replicability
153
Q

Definition of Paradigm

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

154
Q

Definition of Theory

A

A set of general laws/principles that can explain particular events/behaviours

155
Q

Definition of Falsifiability

A

The ability to prove something false

156
Q

Definition of Replicability

A

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

157
Q

Definition of Objectivity

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised so they do not distort or influence the research process

158
Q

Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts - 3 Points

A
  • Kuhn says the social sciences lacks a universally accepted paradigm, so are better seen as a pre-science, distinct from the natural sciences like biology and physics
  • Natural sciences have a number of principles at their core, but in psychology there is too much internal disagreements and conflicting approaches to be seen as a science
  • Kuhn says progress in an established science occurs when there is a a scientific revolution - some researchers begin to question an accepted paradigm and this critique gains popularity/pace (paradigm shift)
159
Q

Theory Construction and Hypothesis Testing - 6 Points

A
  • Theory constructions occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation
  • Should be possible to make clear, precise predictions on the basis of a theory (hypothesis testing)
  • Theories must be scientificaly testable and suggest a number of hypotheses
  • A hypothesis can be tested using systematic, objective methods on order to either support or refute them
  • If the hypotheses are supported, the theory is strengthened whereas if the hypotheses are refuted the theory may need to be revised
  • Process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is know as deduction
160
Q

Falsifiability - 6 Points

A
  • Popper says falsifiability is a key criteria of scientific theory
  • Popper says scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false
  • He believed even if a scientific theory has been successfully and repeatedly tested, its not necessarily true, it just has not been proven false
  • Made distinction between good science where theories are always being challenged and pseudosciences which cannot be falsified
  • Theories that survive the most attempts to falsify become strongest, not necessarily true, but because they have not been proved false
  • THis is why we avoid the phrase ‘this proves’ and why directional hypotheses are always accompanied by a null hypothesis
161
Q

Replicability - 5 Points

A
  • Important element of Popper’s hypothetico-deductive method is replicability
  • If a theory is to be trusted, the findings must be repeatable across many contexts and circumstances
  • The bailout to replicate makes a finding/theory reliable, but also has an important role in determining its validity
  • Popper - by repeating a study over multiple contexts and circumstances we can see the extent to which findings can be generalised
  • For replicability to be possible, psychologists must report their investigations with precision and rigour so other researchers can directly repeat them to verify the findings they have established
162
Q

Objectivity and the Empirical Method - 6 Points

A
  • Researchers cannot allow personal opinions/biases to taint date they collect or influence the behaviour of the participants they are studying
  • In general, methods in psychology which are accompanied by the greatest levels of control tend to be the most objective, like lab experiments
  • Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method
  • Empirical methods emphasis data collection on the basis of direct, sensory experience
  • Experimental method and observational method are good examples of this
  • Early empiricists like John Locke saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sensory perception so a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified

AQA Psychology (11 decks)

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