Approaches Flashcards
Definition of Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Who was the First Person to Write a Psychology Book and Academic Journal?
Wundt
Who Opened the First Psychology Lab?
Wundt
Where was the First Psychology Lab?
Leipzig
Why is Wundt Seen as the Father of Psychology?
Introduced introspection to study the human mind systematically
What is Structuralism?
Consciousness divided into three categories - thoughts, images, sensations
Wundt A03 - 3 Evaluation Points
- Controlled Environment
- General laws are not possible as all introspections are subjective
- Wundt’s Contribution (father of psychology)
What is the Main Characteristic of 1900s Behaviourism?
Researchers conducted controlled experiments on behaviours that were directly observable
What are the Two Main Characteristics of the 1950s Cognitive Approach?
- Made the study of the mind legitimate and scientific
-?
What are the Two Main Characteristics of the 1980s Biological Approach?
- Observable behaviours studied using controlled measures
- Also genetic testing studies relationship between genes and behaviour
Psychology as a Science A03 - 3 Evaluation Points
- Learning, cognitive, and biological approaches all use scientific methods
- Subjective data as humanistic and psychodynamic approaches rely on unscientific case studies and are hampered by demand characteristics
- The question of whether psychology has agreed methods and assumptions is open to debate
Behaviourism - 4 Assumptions
- Behaviour learned from environment
- Behaviour determined by reinforcement and punishment of past experiences
- Observable behaviour should be studied
- Should investigate the laws of learning
Behaviourism - What are We Born as?
A blank state - ‘tabula rasa’
Definition of Operant Conditioning
Learning due to consequences of voluntary behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement and punishment
Definition of Classical Conditioning
Learning due to associatipn of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned reflex response
Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - 2 Points
Food -> Salivation
Bell -> No Salivation
Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Food?
Unconditioned stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Salivation?
Unconditioned response
Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the Bell?
Neutral stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs - Before Conditioning - What is the No Salivation?
No conditioned response
Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning
Bell + food -> Salivation
Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Bell?
Neutral Stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Food?
Unconditioned stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs - During Conditioning - What is the Salivation?
No conditioned response
Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning
Bell -> Salivation
Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning - What is the Bell?
Conditioned stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs - After Conditioning - What is the Salivation?
Conditioned response
Skinner’s Box - 2 Points
- Rat in box with a lever that delivers food pellet
- The rat learned that pressing would give reward and would repeat the behaviour so had been positively reinforced.
Definition of Reinforcement
Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
Definition of Positive Reinforcement
Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they happen
Definition of Negative Reinforcement
Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they stop
Definition of Punishment
Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are unpleasant when they happen
Definition of Continuous of Reinforcement
The desired behaviour is reinforced every single time is occurs, and may result in a stronger response
Definition of Partial Reinforcement
The response is reinforced only part of the time and has a weaker effect
Definition of Variable Reinforcement
Behaviour is reinforced after an unpredictable period of time or number of responses
Behaviourist Approach A03 - Well Controlled Research - 4 Points
- Based on well controlled research
- Behaviourists focused on measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab conditions
- By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus/response units, all other extraneous were removed
- Suggests behaviourism has scientific credibility
Behaviourist Approach A03 - Influence of Human Thought - 3 Points
- May have oversimplified the learning process
- May have ignored influence of human though on learning
- Suggests learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone
Behaviourist Approach A03 - Real World Application - 4 Points
- Principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems
- Operant conditioning is used in prisons and psychiatric wards
- Classical conditioning has been used in treatment of phobias
- increases of value of behaviourism because it has widespread applications
Behaviourist Approach A03 - Environmental Determinism - 4 Points
- Sees all behaviour as condition by past conditioning experiences
- Skinner suggested everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
- When something happens we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but Skinner suggests our past conditioning history determined the outcome
- Ignores any influence of free will on behaviour
Behaviourist Approach A03 - Ethical Issues - 2 Points
- Many have questioned the ethics of conducting studies like Skinner’s
- Animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry
Why is SLT Different to Conditioning?
SLT is not just about learning, it includes cognitive processes such as watching, paying attention, remembering, choice of a role etc
Vicarious Reinforcement - 2 Points
- Indirect learning takes place when an individual observes the behaviour of others
- Learner may imitate this behaviour but imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be reinforced
Definition of Vicarious Reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
Bandura et al - Bobo Doll Study - 4 Points
- Recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll
- Adult it doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
- Children behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and other toys
- Watched and modelled (vicarious reinforcement)
Definition of Meditational Processes
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
What are the 4 Meditational Processes that were Identified by Bandura?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor Reproduction
- Motivation
What is Attention as a Meditational Process?
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
What is Retention as a Meditational Process?
How well the behaviour is remembered
What is Motor Reproduction as a Meditational Process?
The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
What is Motivation as a Meditational Process?
The will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Definition of Social Learning Theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
Definition of Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others
Definition of Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
Definition of Modelling from the Observers Perspective
Imitating the behaviour of a role model
Definition of Modelling from the Model’s Perspective
The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Definition of Modelling from the Model’s Perspective
The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Identification - 5 Points
- People are more likely to imitate people they identify with (identification)
- The person they identify with is called a role model and the process of imitating a role model is called modelling
- The behaviour of a role model is also called modelling
- A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have a higher status
- Role models may not be physically present in the environment
The Role of Meditational Processes - 4 Points
- Attention and Retention relate to the learning of behaviour
- Motor reproduction and motivation relate to the performance of behaviour
- Unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour does not need to occur together
- Observed behaviours may be stored and repeated at a later stage
2 Strengths of SLT
- Recognises Cognitive Factors
- Real-world application
3 Weaknesses of SLT
- Too little reference to biological factors
- Based on evidence from lab studies (demand characteristics)
- Reciprocal determinism
Definition of the Cognitive Approach
How our mental processes affect behaviour
Definition of Internal Mental Processes
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
Definition of Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, and are developed from experience
Definition of Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Definition of Cognitive Neuroscience
The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
3 Assumptions from the Cognitive Approach
- Internal mental process can and should be studied scientifically
- Main focuses are memory, perception and thinking
- These cannot be observed and therefore cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour
Schemas - 5 Points
- “Packets of information” that help us organise and interpret information
- Based on our previous experiences
- Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours like grasping and sucking
- Schemas develop and evolve with experience
- Become more sophisticated and detailed
Bugelski and Alampay - 4 Points
- Two groups of participants were shown a sequence of pictures, either different faces or different animals
- Then shown ambiguous rat-man picture
- Participants who saw the faces were more likely to see the drawing as a man
- Participants who saw the animals were more likely to see the drawing as a man
Strength of Schemas
Useful by helping us take shortcuts in thinking
Weakness of Schemas
Can lead to faulty conclusions and unhelpful behaviours
Theoretical Models - 2 Points
- These are simplified representations based on current research evidence
- Often in picture form, represented by boxes and arrow that represent flow direction and stages
Computer Models - 4 Points
- The development of computers and computer programming has led to a focus on the way that sensory information is passed through the system
- Information is passed through the senses, encoded into memory and then combined with previously stored information to complete a task
- These have proved useful in the development of AI
- If we programme a computer with instructions and it produces the same output as a human, it then suggests similar process are going on in the human mind
Cognitive Neuroscience - 3 Points
- Advances in brain scanning technology means scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of processing
- Also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders
Cognitive Approach A03 - Scientific Method - 3 Points
- Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes are at work
- Involved the use of lab studies
- The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enable the two fields of biology and cognitive neuroscience to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study
Cognitive Approach A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points
- Relies on inference and not direct observation
- Can be too abstract or theoretical
- Research studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli
- May lack external validity
Cognitive Approach A03 - Real World Application - 3 Points
- Been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
- Important contribution in AI and robotics
- Also applied to treatment of depression and improved reliability in EWT
Cognitive Approach A03 - Machine Reductionism - 4 Points
- Based on machine reductionism
- Similarities between human mind and computers
- Computer analogy has been criticised by many
- Ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information
Cognitive Approach A03 - Soft Determinism
View that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors, but we also can exert our free will at times
Definition of the Psychodynamic Approach
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
Definition of the Unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour
Definition of the Id
Entirely unconscious, and is made up of selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
Definition of the Ego
The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego
Definition of the Superego
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self
Definition of Defence Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the Superego
Definition of the Psychosexual Stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through, and at each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
The Role of the Unconscious - 4 Points
- Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious - biological drives and instincts that direct our behaviour
- Contain threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed
- Can be accessed during dreams or slips of the tongue (parapraxes)
- Under the surface of our mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired
Id - 5 Points
- Primitive part of our personality
- Operates on pleasure principle
- Mass of unconscious drives and instincts
- Present at birth
- Entirely selfish and demand gratification of its need
Ego - 5 Points
- Works on reality principle
- Mediator between the two other parts of the personality
- Develops around 2 y/o
- Reduces conflict between the demands of the other two
- Manages by employing a number of defence mechanisms
Superego - 5 Points
- Formed at the end of phallic stage
- Internalised sense of right or wrong
- Based on morality principle
- Represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent
- Punishes ego for wrongdoing through guilt
Psychosexual Stages - 3 Points
- Freud claimed that child development occurred in five stages
- Each stage is marked by a conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next steps
- Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation, where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through adult life
What Age is the Oral Stage?
0 - 1 y/o
What Age is the Anal Stage?
1 - 3 y/o
What Age is the Phallic Stage?
3 - 6 y/o
What Age is the Latency Stage?
7 - 13 y/o
What Age is the Genital Stage?
Adolescence through to adult life
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages?
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latency
- Genital
Oral Stage - 2 Points
- Focus of pleasure is the mouth
- Mother’s breast is object of desire
Anal Stage - 2 Points
- Focus of pleasure is the anus
- Child gains pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces
Phallic Stage - 2 Points
- Focus of pleasure is genital area
- Child experiences the oedipus or Electra complex
Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Oral Stage
Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Anal Stage - 2 Points
- Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive
- Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy
Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Phallic Stage
Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
Latency Stage
Earlier conflicts repressed
Genital Stage
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
Consequence of Unresolved Conflict in the Genital Stage
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Defence Mechanisms - 2 Points
- Involve some form of distortion of reality
- As a long term solution, they are regarded as unhealthy and undesirable
3 Examples of Defence Mechanisms
- Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
- Denial - refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
- Displacement - transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion not a substitute target
Oedipus complex - 5 Points
- During Phallic stage
- Boys develop incestous feelings towards their mother
- Murderous hatred for father (rival in love)
- Fearing castration, they repress their feelings and identify with their father (castration anxiety)
- Take on his gender role and moral values
Electra Complex - 5 Points
- During Phallic stage
- Desire father and hate mother
- Penis is primary love object (penis envy)
- Give up their desire for their father over time
- Replaced with a desire for a baby and identify with their mother
Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Real World Application - 5 Points
- Introduced idea of psychotherapy - psychoanalysis
- New therapy employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious
- First attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
- Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with
- Basis of modern therapy practices
Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points
- Freudian therapists have claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses
- Regarded as harmful and inappropriate for those with more serious mental disorders
- Many symptoms of schizophrenia mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
- Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders
Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Explanatory Power - 3 Points
- Controversial theory, but has a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought
- Psychodynamic approach has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development, and gender identity
- Draws attention to the connection between experiences in childhood and our later development
Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Untestable Concepts - 3 Points
- Karl Popper - argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criteria of falsification
- Freud’s ideas were based in the subjective study of single individuals, such as Little Hans, which makes it difficult to generalise
- Suggests Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific
Psychodynamic Approach A03 - Psychic Determinism - 3 Points
- Suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood
- Freud believed there was no such thing as an ‘accident’
- Extreme view because it dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour
4 Ways of Assessing the Unconscious
- Dream analysis
- Ink blots
- Free association
- Freudian slips
Definition of Humanistic Psychology
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasis the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
Definition of Self-Actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfilling one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of
What is the Hierarchy of Needs?
A five-levelled hierarchal sequence in which basic psychological needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved
Definition of Self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’
Definition of Congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy, and is when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match
Definition of Conditions of Worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children
Humanistic Assumptions - 4 Points
- Claims human beings are self-determining and have free will
- People are still influenced by external and internal factors, but are also active agents who can determine their own development
- Humanistic psychologists reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour
- Person centred approach - psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - 3 Points
- Maslow described a hierarchy of needs that motivate out behaviour
- In order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation, a number of other deficiency needs must be first met
- A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy once the current need in the sequence has been met
Hierarchy of Needs
Self actualisation
Self-esteem
Love and belongingness
Safety and security
Physiological needs
Self Actualisation - 6 Points
- Represents uppermost level of hierarchy of needs
- All four levels of hierarchy must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation and fulfil their potential
- First applies to early development when a baby is first focused on physiological needs and applies throughout life
- Regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human
- Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated
- Not everyone will manage this and there are important psychological factors that may prevent a person from reaching their potential
The Self Congruence and Conditions of Worth - 5 Points
- Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individuals concept of self must have congruence
- If the gap is too big, the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth
- To reduce this gap, Rogers developed client-centred therapy to help people cope with the problems of everyday living
- Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults have roots in childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents
- A parent who sets conditions of worth is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future
Counselling - 5 Points
- Rogers’ client-centred therapy led to the general approach of counselling, which is applied in may settings today
- Rogers referred to these in therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as expert on their own condition
- Therapy is non-directive and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive, and non-judgemental
- An effective therapist should provide a client with 3 things - genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
What is the Aim of Rogerian Therapy? - 3 Points
- Increase the feelings of self-worth
- Reduce the level of incongruence
- Help the person to become a more full functioning
Humanistic Psychology A03 - Not Reductionist - 3 Points
- Rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components
- Humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
- This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context
Humanistic Psychology A03 - Counterpoint - 4 Points
- Reductionist approach may be more scientific
- Experiments reduce behaviour to variables
- Humanist psychology has very few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measures
- Short on empirical evidence to support its claims
Humanistic Psychology A03 - Positive Approach - 3 Points
- Optimistic Approach
- Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition
- See all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives
Humanistic Psychology A03 - Western Cultural Bias - 4 Points
- Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, are more associated with individualist cultures in the Western world
- Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence
- These cultures may not identify so easily with the ideas and values of humanistic psychology
- This approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
Humanistic Psychology A03 - Limited Explanation - 3 Points
- Critics have argued that humanistic psychology has had relatively little impact on psychology or practical application in the real world, in comparison to other approaches
- The behaviour has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas, rather than a comprehensive theory
- On the other hand, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace.
4 Examples of Self-Actualisation
- Morality
- Creativity
- Spontaneously
- Purpose
3 Examples of Self-Esteem
- Confidence
- Achievement
- Respect of others
4 Examples of Love and Belongingness
- Friendship
- Family
- Intimacy
- Sense of connection
5 Examples of Safety and Security
- Health
- Employment
- Property
- Family
- Social stability
6 Examples of Physiological Needs
- Breathing
- Food
- Water
- Clothing
- Sleep
- Shelter
Definition of Biological Approach
Perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, affecting behaviour
Definition of Biological Structure
Arrangements of parts to form an organ system or living thing
Definition of Genes
Make up chromosomes and consist of DNA that codes physical features of an organism and psychological features (inherits)
Definition of Neurochemistry
Relates to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
Definition of Genotype
Genetic make-up
Definition of Phenotype
How genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological characteristics
Definition of Evolution
Changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over succeeding generations
Biological Assumptions - 3 Points
- Every psychological thing is at first biological, so we must look at biological processes and structures to fully understand human behaviour
- The mind lives in the brain - thoughts, feelings, and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
- Understanding brain structure and function can explain our behaviour and thoughts
Genetic Basis of Behaviour - 4 Points
- Behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics
- Twin studies used to determine likelihood that certain traits have genetic basis and assess concordance rates between twins
- If monozygotic twins have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins, it would suggest a genetic basis
- This is because Mz twins share 100% of their DNA whilst Dz twins share 50%
Genotype and Phenotype - 3 Points
- Phenotype is influenced by the environment
- Mz twins with the same genotype can express them differently
- Illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept - much of our behaviour depends on interaction between inherited factors and the environment
Evolution and Behaviour - 3 Points
- Darwin’s 19th Century theory of natural selection says any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will continue in further generations
- Similar to how farmers would select animals for breeding
- In nature, this happens naturally - selection occurs because some traits give advantages in terms of survival and reproduction
Biological Approach A03 - Scientific Methods of Investigations - 4 Points
- Makes use of precise and highly objective methods
- Includes scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs
- With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and natural processes in ways that are not open to bias
- Means biological approach is based on objective and reliable data
Biological Approach A03 - Real Life Application - 3 Points
- Increased understanding of neuro-chemical processes in the brain associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
- Promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of serotonin in synapses in the brain
- Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms
Biological Approach A03 - Deterministic View of Behaviour - 3 Points
- Sees human behaviour as generated by internal genetic causes we have no control over
- The way in which an individual’s genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment
- Crime/Twins
5 Features of Science
- Paradigms and paradigm shifts
- Theory construction and hypothesis
- Objectivity and the empirical method
- Falsifiability
- Replicability
Definition of Paradigm
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
Definition of Theory
A set of general laws/principles that can explain particular events/behaviours
Definition of Falsifiability
The ability to prove something false
Definition of Replicability
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
Definition of Objectivity
When all sources of personal bias are minimised so they do not distort or influence the research process
Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts - 3 Points
- Kuhn says the social sciences lacks a universally accepted paradigm, so are better seen as a pre-science, distinct from the natural sciences like biology and physics
- Natural sciences have a number of principles at their core, but in psychology there is too much internal disagreements and conflicting approaches to be seen as a science
- Kuhn says progress in an established science occurs when there is a a scientific revolution - some researchers begin to question an accepted paradigm and this critique gains popularity/pace (paradigm shift)
Theory Construction and Hypothesis Testing - 6 Points
- Theory constructions occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation
- Should be possible to make clear, precise predictions on the basis of a theory (hypothesis testing)
- Theories must be scientificaly testable and suggest a number of hypotheses
- A hypothesis can be tested using systematic, objective methods on order to either support or refute them
- If the hypotheses are supported, the theory is strengthened whereas if the hypotheses are refuted the theory may need to be revised
- Process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is know as deduction
Falsifiability - 6 Points
- Popper says falsifiability is a key criteria of scientific theory
- Popper says scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false
- He believed even if a scientific theory has been successfully and repeatedly tested, its not necessarily true, it just has not been proven false
- Made distinction between good science where theories are always being challenged and pseudosciences which cannot be falsified
- Theories that survive the most attempts to falsify become strongest, not necessarily true, but because they have not been proved false
- THis is why we avoid the phrase ‘this proves’ and why directional hypotheses are always accompanied by a null hypothesis
Replicability - 5 Points
- Important element of Popper’s hypothetico-deductive method is replicability
- If a theory is to be trusted, the findings must be repeatable across many contexts and circumstances
- The bailout to replicate makes a finding/theory reliable, but also has an important role in determining its validity
- Popper - by repeating a study over multiple contexts and circumstances we can see the extent to which findings can be generalised
- For replicability to be possible, psychologists must report their investigations with precision and rigour so other researchers can directly repeat them to verify the findings they have established
Objectivity and the Empirical Method - 6 Points
- Researchers cannot allow personal opinions/biases to taint date they collect or influence the behaviour of the participants they are studying
- In general, methods in psychology which are accompanied by the greatest levels of control tend to be the most objective, like lab experiments
- Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method
- Empirical methods emphasis data collection on the basis of direct, sensory experience
- Experimental method and observational method are good examples of this
- Early empiricists like John Locke saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sensory perception so a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified
