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AQA GCSE Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

theory

A

an explanation for behaviour, tested using objective research methods

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2
Q

aim

A

a general statement explaining the purpose of a study

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3
Q

independent variable (IV)

A

the variable that the researcher manipulates

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4
Q

dependent variable (DV)

A

the variable being measured

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5
Q

operationalisation

A

making variables clearly defined and measurable

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6
Q

alternative hypothesis

A

statement of relationship beteeen variables

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7
Q

null hypothesis

A

a statement of no relationship between the variables

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8
Q

cause and effect

A

the only thing that should cause a change in the IV is the DV

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9
Q

extraneous variables (EVs)

A

unwanted variables that could affect the DV

then the change in the DV is due to EV and not IV

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10
Q

instructions to participants

A

you should give the same information about the study to all participants

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11
Q

standardised procedures

A

using the exact same methods and procedures for participants in a research study

aims to control EVs

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12
Q

randomisation

A

using chance (e.g. tossing a coin) to control effects of bias when designing a study

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13
Q

target population

A

group of people being studied

sample chosen from target population

spample should represent target population for making generalisations

sampling methods aim to avoid bias

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14
Q

random sampling

A

each person has equal chance of selection

numbers of target populatiin in hat / random generator

evaluation: no bias as everyone has an equal chance of selection

takes time as need list of all members of target population

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15
Q

opportunity sampling

A

selecting people available

evaluation: quick and cheap

only represents the population from which it was drawn

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16
Q

systematic sampling

A

selecting every nth person from list of target population

evaluation: avoids researcher bias

may end up with an unrepresentative sample

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17
Q

stratified sampling

A

selecting participants in proportion to frequency in target population

evaluation: most representative method

very time-consuming to sort sub-groups

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18
Q

ethical issues

A

conflict between participants’ rights and well-being and the need to gain valuable results

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19
Q

informed consent

A

participants should be told the purpose of research and that they can leave at any time

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20
Q

deception

A

participants should not be lied to or misled about aims

mild deception can be justified

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21
Q

privacy

A

participants have a right to control information about themselves

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22
Q

confidentiality

A

personal data must be protected and respected

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23
Q

BPS guidelines

A

a code of conduct all professional psychologists in the UK must follow

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24
Q

dealing with informed consent

A

participants (or their guardians) sign a form that tells them what is expected

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25
Q

dealing with deception and protection from harm

A

participants have a full debrief to explain the true aims, reduce distress

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26
Q

dealing with privacy and confidentiality

A

participants should be anonymous (given numbers or referred to by initials)

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27
Q

reliability

A

a measure of consistency

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28
Q

quantitative methods - in terms of reliability

A

tend to be the most reliable

laboratory experiments - controlled and easy to repeat exactly

interviews / questionnairs - same person should answer same questions in same way. closed questions likely to be more reliable

observations - one observer should produce same observations if repeated, or two observers (interobserver reliability)

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29
Q

qualitative methods - in terms of reliability

A

less reliable

case studies and unstructured interviews are difficult to repeat in the same way

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30
Q

validity

A

relates to whether a result is a true reflection of ‘real-world’ behaviour

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31
Q

sampling methods - in terms of validity

A

sample may not represent target population

representativeness low in opportunity sampling and high in stratified sampling

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32
Q

experimental designs

A

repeated measures - order effects challenge validity, overcome by counterbalancing

independent groups - participant variables challenge validity, overcome by random allocation

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33
Q

quantitative methods - in terms of validity

A

laboratory experiments - task, setting, participant awareness challenge validity. high control

field experiments - task and control challenge validity. more natural

methods producing numerical data (e.g. questionnaires) lack validity as they reduce behaviour to a score

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34
Q

qualitative methods - in terms of validity

A

case studies have greater validity as they give deeper insight into behaviour

difficult to analyse, which reduces validity

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35
Q

correlations

A

correlations show how things are linked together, associations

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36
Q

co-variables

A

correlations are quantitative - continuous, numerical data

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37
Q

scatter diagram

A

a special graph used to plot correlational data. one co-variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis.

a dot is placed where they meet

38
Q

types of correlation

A

positive - as one co-variable increases, the other increases

negative - as one co-variable increases, the other decreases

zero - no relationship between co-variables

39
Q

correlations - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • good starting point for research
  • can be used to investugate curvilinear relationships, so many uses

weaknesses:

  • don’t show cause and effect
  • no control of EVs, so conclusion drawn may be wrong
40
Q

interviews

A

face to face, real-time contact, though also on phone/text

41
Q

structured interviews

A

interviewer reads list of pre-prepared questions

follow-up questions may be prepared as well

42
Q

unstructured interviews

A

some questions prepard before

new questions created depending on what interviewee says

43
Q

semi-structured interviews

A

some questions decided before but follow-up questions emerge

44
Q

interviews - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • produce a lot of information
  • insight gained into thoughts and feelings

weaknesses:

  • data can be difficult to analyse
  • people may feel uncomfortable talking face to face
45
Q

questionnaires

A

prepared list of questions which can be answered in writing, over the phone, internet, etc.

46
Q

open and closed questions

A

open questions tend to produce qualitative data

closed questions have a fixed range of answers, e.g. rating scale, yes/no

47
Q

experiments

A

look at a measurable change in the DV (quantitative), caused by a change to the IV

48
Q

laboratory experiments

A

experimenter has high control over what happens

takes place in a laboratory

49
Q

laboratory experiments - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • EVs can be controlled, so cause and effect established
  • use of standardised procedures permits replication, can demonstrate reliability

weaknesses:

  • behaviour in a lab ‘less normal’, so difficult to generalise
  • participants may change their behaviour because aware of being watched
50
Q

field experiments

A

take place in a natural setting

IV manipulated by experimenter

51
Q

field experiments - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • more realistic than lab experiments as in a natural environment
  • can use standardised procedures so some control

weaknesses:

  • may lose control of EVs so difficult to show cause and effect
  • ethical issues because participants not aware of study
52
Q

natural experiments

A

take place in a natural or lab setting

IV is not changed by the experimenter, it varies naturally

53
Q

natural experiments - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • may have high validity because real-world variables
  • can standardise so some control over EVs

weaknesses:

  • few opportunities to do this kind of research as behaviours may be rare
  • may be EVs because participants not randomly allocated to conditions
54
Q

experimental designs

A

experimental designs are the different ways can be organised in relation to IVs / conditions of the experiment

55
Q

independent groups

A

different group of participants for each level of the IV (condition)

control and experimental groups

56
Q

independent groups - evaluation points

A

strength:
- order effects are not a problem

weaknesses:

  • different participants in each group
  • participant variables can act as EVs
57
Q

independent groups - dealing with problems

A

dealing witn participant variables - allocation to conditions:

participant differences can be dealt with by using chance or systematic method to allocate participants to conditions

58
Q

repreated measures

A

all participants take part in all levels of the IV (conditions)

59
Q

repeated measures - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • no participant variables
  • fewer participants needed, so less expensive

weakness:
- order effects reduce validity, e.g. practice effect

60
Q

repeated measures - dealing with problems

A

dealing with order effects - counterbalancing:

half participants do conditions in one order, other half do opposite order

61
Q

matched pairs

A

participants tested on variables relevant to the study. participants then matched and one member of each pair goes in each condition.

62
Q

matched pairs - evaluation points

A

strength:
- no order effects (fewer participant variables)

weaknesses:

  • takes time to match participants
  • doesn’t control all participant variables
63
Q

case studies

A

an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, event, or institution

64
Q

a qualitative method (case studies)

A

collects information about people’s experiences in words.

may include quantitative data, e.g. IQ scores.

65
Q

longitudinal (case studies)

A

often carried out over a long period to see how behaviour changes.

may also collect retrospective case history.

66
Q

case studies - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • research lacks specific aims so researcher more open-minded
  • best way of studying rare behaviours

weaknesses:

  • focus on one individual or event, so often can’t be generalised
  • subjective interpretation of events
67
Q

observation

A

a researcher watches or listens to participants, and records data

68
Q

observations - natural vs. controlled

A

natural - record behaviour where it would normally occur

controlled: researcher manipulates aspects of environment

69
Q

observations - covert versus overt

A

covert - participants not aware behaviour is being recorded

overt - told in advance

70
Q

observations - categories of behaviour

A

target behaviour broken into separate observable categories

71
Q

observations - interobserver reliability

A

two observers should produce the same record of behaviour

researchers watch at the same time, and correlate data

72
Q

observations - evaluation points

A

strengths:

  • greater validity because based on what people do
  • real-life behaviour when participants not aware of being observed

weaknesses:

  • ethical issues as can’t gain consent if observing in a public place
  • observer bias - observer’s expectations can affect validity
73
Q

quantitative data (including evaluation)

A

quantities (numbers) but can measure thoughts / feelings

evaluation points:

  • easy to analyse and draw conclusions
  • lacks depth, not reflecting real-world complexity
74
Q

qualitative data (including evaluation)

A

data in words but can be turned into numbers by counting themes

evaluation points:

  • more depth and detail
  • difficult to analuse and summarise
75
Q

primary data (including evaluation)

A

data that has been obtained first hand

evaluation points:

  • suits the aims of research so more useful
  • it takes time and effort to collect
76
Q

secondary data (including evaluation)

A

second hand data from other studies or government statistics

evaluation points:

  • easy and convenient to use, saving expense
  • it may not fit what the researcher is investigating
77
Q

descriptive statistics

A

express numbers in a way that shows the overall pattern

e.g. mean, median, mode, and range

78
Q

range (including evaluation)

A

spread of data

arrange data in order and subtract lowest from highest score

evaluation points:

  • easy to calculate
  • can be distorted by extreme values
79
Q

mean (including evaluation)

A

mathematical average

add up all scores and divide by the number of scores

evaluation points:

  • uses all the data, so most sensitive measure
  • can be distorted by extreme values
80
Q

median (including evaluation)

A

middle value

data put in order from lowest to highest

evaluation points:

  • not effect by extreme scores
  • less sensitive than the mean to variation in values
81
Q

mode (including evaluation)

A

most common score

evaluation points:

  • very easy to calculate
  • can be unrepresentative
82
Q

scatter diagrams

A

to display correlation

one co-variable on x-axis and the other on y-axis. a dot is placed where co-variables meet

83
Q

frequency tables

A

frequency means the number of times it occurs

frequency tables are a systematic way to organise data in rows and columns

84
Q

frequency diagrams

A

histogram - continuous categories, no spaces between bars

bar chart - bars can be in any order

normal distribution - symmetrical spread forms a bell shape with mean, median, and mode at peak

85
Q

decimals

A

any number written with a decimal

position represents value

86
Q

fractions

A

reduce to simplest form

87
Q

ratios

A

a way to express fractions

8:2 can be reduced to 4:1

88
Q

percentages

A

fractions out of 100

89
Q

finding the arithmetic mean

A

add all the scores and divide by number of scores

90
Q

standard form

A

a mathematical shorthand to represent very large or small numbers

e.g. 3.23 x 10^6 is 3,230,000, and 3.23 x 10^-5 is 0.0000323

91
Q

significant figures

A

simplifying a number to a certain number of places

e.g. 32,462 to 2 sf is 32,000 and 0.003256 to 2 sf is 0.0033

92
Q

estimate results

A

a rough calculation

AQA GCSE Psychology (8 decks)

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