Memory Flashcards
encoding
changing information into a form so it can be held in the brain
visual encoding
encoding information based on how it looks
acoustic encoding
encoding information based on how it sounds
semantic encoding
encoding information based on it’s meaning
tactile encoding
encoding things based on how they feel to the touch
olfactory encoding
encoding things based on smell
storage
holding information in memory so that it can be retrieved later
retrieval
locating and bringing back information into mind
recognition
identifying from options
cued recall
locating information with a clue (cue)
free recall
without cues
a study of encoding
baddeley’s study (acoustically and semantically similar / dissimilar word lists)
baddeley’s study - aim
to see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in STM and LTM
baddeley’s study - method
participants learned words that were similar or dissimilar sounding (e.g. cat, cab, can, or pit, few, cow) and recalled them immediately
others learned words with similar of dissimilar meanings (e.g. big, large, huge, or cow, purple, sky) and recalled them after 20 minutes
baddeley’s study - results
similar sounding words poorly recalled in STM and words with similar meanings were poorly recalled in LTM
baddeley’s study - conclusion
this shows STM is encoded by sound and LTM by meaning
baddeley’s study - evaluation points
controlled experiment - it is well controlled, as extraneous variables like participants’ hearing were controlled by a hearing test
STM is sometimes visual - encoding in STM does not always involve sound (Brandimonte et al.)
LTM may not have been tested - LTM may not be tested as they only waited 20 minutes before recall, so conclusion lacks validity
episodic memory
memory for events from your life
semantic memory
memory of what things mean (your own encyclopedia)
procedural memory
memory of how to do things
declarative vs. non-declarative
declarative = episodic and semantic
non-declarative = procedural
different types of LTM - evaluation points
specific locations in the brain - brain scans show different types of LTM relate to different brain locations, e.g. procedural memory associated with motor area
amnesiac patients - amnesiacs like Clive Wearing support LTM types as most of his procedural but not episodic memories were intact
it’s not that simple - distinctive types of LTM are difficult to separate so it may be an oversimplification
bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - aim
to see how memory is reconstructed when recalling an unfamiliar story
bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - method
the war of the ghosts story was read by one participant and recalled after 15 minutes, and then another, and so on
bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - results
participants changed the story to fit cultural expectations, leaving out unfamiliar information
bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - conclusion
we use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory
bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - evaluation
lacks control - participants were not told that accurate recall was important, which could have affected the results
results were biased - Bartlett analysed the recollections himself, so we cannot fully trust the conclusion
story was unusual - the story was unusual so the results may not reflect everyday memory processes
the theory of reconstructive memory
people rebuild memory as an active process
memory is inaccurate
memory is not a process of exact reproduction of experiences
reconstruction
record key pieces of information and recombine them to tell the whole story
social and cultural influences
expectations come from the world / culture we live in, and affect storage and recall
effort after meaning
we focus on the meaning of events and make an effort afterwards to make sense of fragments of memory
theory of reconstructive memory - evaluation points
more realistic research - (Bartlett’s study) reflects how we use memory on every day because it uses a story not word lists
some memories are accurate - not all recall is reconsructed as some memories of the story are accurate
real-world application - it explains problems with eyewitness testimony as people do not always recall accurately
mutli-store model
three memory stores - different coding, capacity, and duration. information moves through attentian and prolonged rehearsal
sensory memory
very short duration, large capacity
attention transfers information to STM
STM
limited duration (30 seconds) and capacity (5-9 items), acoustic encoding
role of rehearsal
rehearsal keeps information in STM
prolonged rehearsal transfers STM into LTM
LTM
semantic encoding, unlimited capacity and stored up to a lifetime
mutli-store model - evaluation points
supported by research - Baddeley’s study of encoding shows differences between STM and LTM
too simple - having one STM and one LTM store is too simplistic, e.g. more than one LTM store
artificial materials - supporting research uses word lists and consonant syllables, i.e. lacks validity
primacy and recency effects
primacy effect - words at beginning are remembered more (rehearsed, so in LTM)
recency effect - words at end are remembered more (heard recently, so in STM)
murdock’s study - aim
to see if memory of words is affected by location in a list
murdock’s study - method
participants listened to 20 word lists with 10-40 words on them, recalled words after each list
murdock’s study - conclusion
shows the serial position effect and
supports the MSM stores
murdock’s study - evaluation points
controlled lab study - there was a high level of control so it could be concluded position of words determined recall
artificial task - word lists were used which is only one type of memory, so the study lacks validity
supporting research - some amnesiacs can’t store LTM and don’t display a primacy effect, which shows the primacy effect is related to it (Carlesimo et al.)
mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - aim
to see the effect of doing two activities on accuracy of memory
mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - method
learned a list of 10 words and then another list of varying types, e.g. synonyms and antonyms
mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - results
memory was affected by the second list, most of all if second list had similar meaning (synonyms)
mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - conclusions
shows interference affects accuracy of memory and is strongest when you try remember two similar things
mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - evaluation points
controlled research - high control, e.g. counterbalancing, was used to reduce bias
artificial task - it does not reflect real-life memory as we don’t often have to remember very similar words
not really forgetting - it mau be information but just cannot be accessed, so isn’t actually forgotten (Tulving and Psotka)
godden and baddeley’s study - aim
to see if context improved recall
godden and baddeley’s study - method
divers listened to and recalled words in the dame or different settings on the beach and underwater
godden and baddeley’s study - results
recall was highest in the same environment for learning and recall
godden and baddeley’s study - conclusions
context of learning acts as a trigger, or cue, improving the accuracy of memory
godden and baddeley’s study - evaluation points
artificial task - lists of words were used. when more complex materials were used, better recall was found
recall was short term - participants recalled the words almost immediately, unlike in everyday life
similar context - context only acts as a cue if context at learning and recall are very similar, which rarely happens (Smith)
loftus and pickrell’s study - aim
to see if false memories could be created in participants through suggestion
loftus and pickrell’s study - method
four stories about childhood events were read where three were true and one was false (shopping mall)
loftus and pickrell’s study - results
6 out of 24 (25%) of participants recalled the story fully or partially
loftus and pickrell’s study - conclusions
imagining an event can implant a false memory in a person, reducing accuracy of memory
loftus and pickrell’s study - evaluation points
artificial tasks - harmless events could be implanted easily but traumatic events may not, so conclusions are limited
ethical issues - participants may be left with implanted false memories which lingered after the study, causing distress
real-world application - this research has implications for eyewitness testimony as police questioning could accidentally implant false memories
