research methods Flashcards
define aims
the aims are developed theories of what the experiment is trying to discover
define directional hypothesis
researcher makes it clear the sort of difference expected
define non directional hypothesis
researcher says there is a difference but not type
define independent variable
variables that are changed
define dependent variable
variable that is measured
define extraneous variable
factors other than IV affect the DV
define confounding variables
any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV
define demand characteristics
participant discovers the purpose of experiment and behaviour become unnatural
define randomisation
use of chance to control the effects of bias
define standardisation
using the same formalised procedures for all participants in the study
define investigator effects
investigators behaviour on the effect of the DV
define matched pairs
participants are paired together based on their similarities
pros of matched pairs
less effect of order effects and demand characteristics
less participant variables
cons of matched pairs
time consuming
more expensive
define repeated measures
all participants will experience both conditions one after the other
pros of repeated measures
participant variables are controlled
fewer participants
cons of repeated measures
order effects
demand characteristics
define independent groups
two separate group experience 2 different conditions
pros of independent groups
no order effects
less likely to guess aims
cons of independent groups
participants may have individual differences
define lab experiments
experiments in highly controlled environments
pros of lab experiments
control over extraneous variables
replication is more valid
cons of lab experiments
lack of generalisability
demand characteristics
low mundane realism
define field experiments
a natural everyday setting
pros of field experiments
higher mundane realism
more valid and authentic
cons of field experiments
ethical issues
loss of control over extraneous variables
define natural experiments
researcher takes advantage of pre existing independent variables
pros of natural experiments
provide opportunities for research
high external validity
cons of natural experiments
participants may not be randomly allocated
define systematic sample
every nth number of the population is selected. a sampling frame is produced
pros of systematic sample
avoids researcher bias
cons of systematic sample
unrepresentative
define opportunity sample
select anyone who’s willing and able
pros of opportunity sample
convenient and easy
cons of opportunity sample
unrepresentative , researcher bias
define volunteer sample
participants will select themselves to be part of the sample
pros of volunteer sample
minimum effort, time efficient
cons of volunteer sample
volunteer bias
define random sample
all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected
pros of random sample
free from researcher bias
cons of random sample
difficult to obtain a complete list of the target population
may not be representative
define stratified sample
identify the strata that make up the population - then proportions needed for the sample to be representative is made
pros of stratified sample
avoid researcher bias
representative
cons of stratified sample
can’t reflect all ways people are different
define protection from harm
participants should not be placed under anymore harm than they experience in everyday lives
define confidentiality
have the right to control information about themselves
define informed consent
where people should be aware of the research aims - right to withdraw
define deception
means deliberately withholding information
how to deal with informed consent
issue participants with all relevant information that could affect their decision to participate
how to deal with deception and protection from harm
at the end participants should be given a full debrief
right to withhold data
how to deal with confidentiality
the participants should have anonymity - not recording personal details
define pilot study
a small scale version of an investigation is conducted. the aim is to check that the procedures etc. work effectively and allow for modifications if necessary
define single blind procedure
participant are unaware of the aim but the researcher is aware
define double blind procedure
the participant neither the researcher are aware of the aims
define covert observation
participant behaviour is recorded without their consent or knowledge
cons of covert observation
questionable ethics
pros of covert observation
no problem of participant reactivity
define overt observation
participants are recorded with their consent
pros of overt observation
ethically acceptable
cons of overt observation
demand characteristics
define naturalistic observation
take place in the setting where the behaviour would usually occur
pros of naturalistic observation
high external validity
cons of naturalistic observation
harder to replicate, lack of control over extraneous variables
define controlled observation
watching behaviour within a structured environment
pros of controlled observation
control over most extraneous variables
easier to replicate
cons of controlled observation
may lack external validity
define participant observation
the researcher will become a member of the group whose behaviour is recorded
pros of participant observation
increased insight into participants lives -increases validity
cons of participant observation
researches may lose objectivity
define non participant observation
researcher remains outside the group whose behaviour is being observed
pros of non participant observation
maintains an objective view
cons of non participant observation
may lose possible valuable insight
define unstructured observations
the researcher writes down everything they see
pros of unstructured observations
more depth of answers
cons of unstructured observations
observer bias
difficult to analyse
define structured observations
a pre determined list of behaviours and sampling methods
pros of structured observations
likely to have quantitive data, easier to analyse
cons of structured observations
less depth of the data collected
define event sampling
every time an event occurs
define time sampling
records behaviour every fixed time frame. eg every 60 seconds
pros of sample methods
useful when it occurs infrequently
cons of sample methods
if too complex may overlook important details
define behavioural categories
when a target behaviour is broken up into components which are measurable
pros of behavioural categories
more structured and objective data
cons of behavioural categories
categories may be ambiguous
define open questionnaires
don’t have a fixed range of answers . can be answered in any way
define closed questionnaires
offers a fixed number of answers
pros of questionnaires
cost effective
usually straight forward to analyse
cons of questionnaires
may answer on how they want to be presented - social desirability bias
response bias
define structured interviews
made up of pre determined questions
define unstructured interviews
no set questions more free flowing
define semi structured interviews
theres a list of questions but can ask follow up Q’s
pros of structured interviews
easy to replicate
cons of structured interviews
not expand on their answers
pros of unstructured interviews
more flexibility, more in-depth answers
cons of unstructured interviews
interviewer bias
interviewers may lie
define co-variables
the variables investigated within a correlation
define positive correlation
as 1 co variable increases so does the other
define negative correlation
as 1 co variable increases the other decreases
pros of correlation
relatively quick and cheap to carry out
no need for a controlled environment
cons of correlation
third variable problem
causation may not imply causation
define qualitative data
is expressed in words and non numerical
pros of qualitative data
more richness in detail
greater external validity
cons of qualitative data
difficult to analyse
open to bias
define qualitative data
data that Is expressed numerically
pros of quantitive data
relatively simple to analyse
more objective less open to bias
cons of quantitive data
much narrower may not be representative to everyday life
define secondary data
data that has been collected by someone previously
pros of secondary data
inexpensive and early accessed
cons of secondary data
may not be useful, outdated or incomplete
define primary data
the original data that has been collected for the investigation
pros of primary data
specifically target the aim of the experiment
cons of primary data
requires time and effort
define median
middle value
pros of median
not affected by extremes
cons of median
not all data included
define mode
most common
pros of mode
easy to calculate
cons of mode
may be more than one
define mean
add up all score then divide by total number
pros of mean
most representative as most sensitive
cons of mean
easily distorted by 1 extreme value
define range
the lowest value taken away from the highest value
pros of range
easy to calculate
cons of range
only takes into account 2 extreme values
define standard deviation
how far scores will deviate from the mean
pros of standard deviation
very precise measure of dispersion
cons of standard deviation
can be distorted by extreme values
define normal distribution
a symmetrical shape distribution around the mean
define positive skew
the tail is on the positive side - the right and the peak is on the left
define negative skew
the tail is on the negative side - the left and the peak is on the right
3 aims of peer review
to allocate research funding - to decide whether to award funding
validate the relevance - assessed for its quality
suggest amendments - may suggest minor revisions
3 evaluation of peer review
anonymity - may use anonymity as a way of criticising rivals
publication bias - prefer to publish positive results attention grabbing headlines
burying ground breaking research - may suppress opposition to any mainstream theories
define case study
an in depth investigation of a single individual
pros of case study
may shed light on unusual or abnormal behaviour eg the case of HM
cons of case study
can’t really be generalised
define content analysis
indirect study of behaviour by examining communication
define coding
communication is analyse
define thematic analysis
qualitative approach to identifying implicit or explicit idea
pros of content analysis
circumnavigate ethical issues
cons of content analysis
researcher bias
formula of inter observer reliability
number of agreements / number of observations >+.8
define reliability
how consistent findings are
define test retest
assessing the same person on two separate occasions
define inter observer
extent there is an agreement between 2 or more observers
how to improve reliability of questionnaires
use the test retest method
how to improve reliability of interviews
use same interviewers every time
how to improve reliability of lab experiments
exerts strict control over variables - replication
how to improve reliability of observations
behavioural categories are fully operationalised
how to improve validity of qualitative methods
researchers may have to demonstrate interpretive validity - do their interpretations match up with the researchers findings
how to improve validity of observations
high ecological validity in covert observations
how to improve validity of experimental methods
using a control group / standardised procedures
how to improve validity of questionnaires
incorporate a lie scale to see effects of social desirability bias
define ecological validity
can findings from researchers can be generalised
define temporal validity
can findings be generalised to other historical eras
define validity
the extent to which an observed effect is genuine
define face validity
a measure is scrutinised to determine if it measures what it is supposed to measure
define concurrent
extent to which psychological measures relate to an existing similar measure
define nominal data
forms of categorical data
define ordinal data
data is ordered in some way
define interval data
based on a numerical scale
define type 1 error
the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis - a false positive
define type 2 error
the incorrect failure to reject the null hypothesis - a false negative
define abstract
the key details of the research project
define introduction
includes aims and hypothesis
define method
description of what material is sued and the procedure
define results
the findings from the experiment
define discussion
what the research findings relate to in psychological theory
define references
list of sources used or quoted
