approaches Flashcards
define classical conditioning
learning through association
who studied classical conditioning and what did it involve
revealed dogs could be draught to salivate at the sound of the bell
who studied operant conditioning
skinner 1953 tested on rats
define positive behaviour
receiving an award when a particular behaviour is performed
define negative reinforcement
when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant
define punishment
is an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour
define the 3 assumptions of the behaviourist approach
- is only associated with behaviour and can be observed and measured - not mental processes
- all behaviour is learnt from the environment excluding innate and inherited factors
- people are born as a blank slate
- psychology should be studied as a science
evaluation of behaviourist approach 3
- scientific credibility Brought to psychology by focusing on observable behaviour in labs improving objectivity and replication
- real world application operant conditioning is the basis of a token economy used successfully in psychiatric hospitals
- mechanistic view animals are seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment with no conscious insight contrasting to cognitive approaches which state humans have a more active role in behaviour
define vicarious reinforcement
where its not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced
define identification
children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of role models - modelling. a person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics
define vicarious reinforcement
cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
bandura’s 4 meditational processes
attention - how we notice certain behaviours
retention - how behaviour is remembered
motivation - will to perform behaviour
motor reproduction - the observers ability to perform the behaviour
3 assumptions of slt
- much of behaviour is learnt from our experiences
- people learn behaviour via observation and imitations of others within a social context
- learning can occur through classical and operational conditioning but also occurs indirectly
evaluation of slt 3
- importance of cognitive factors, behaviour is stored informations slt provides a comprehensive explanation by recognising meditational processes
- influence of bio factors in the Bobo doll experiment boys were more aggressive than girls. may be explained by hormones such as testosterone
- over reliance of lab studies, participants may respond to demand characteristics. the main purpose of the bobo doll is to strike it explaining their aggression
theoretical models
important theoretical model is information processing approach suggesting information flows through cognitive system - mutlistore model
computer models
where the mind is compared too computer through similarities in information processing. use a concept of central processing coding and stores - development of artificial intelligence
define schema
a mental framework of beliefs that influence cognitive processing which are developed from experience
define cognitive neuroscience
scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
early research of cognitive neuroscience
1860s Paul broca identified how damage to a frontal lobe impairs speech production
cognitive neuroscience scans
fMRI and PET scans systematically observe neurological basis on mental processes eg Tulving et al LTM research
scanning techniques established the neurological basis of some mental health disorders e.g. the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD
development of cognitive neuroscience
development of mind mapping techniques analyse the brain waves of eyewitnesses in court
assumptions of cognitive approach 3
- internal processes can and should be studied scientifically
- investigated those areas of human behaviour neglected by behaviourists e.g. thoughts and feelings
- processes are private so cannot be observed so they are studied indirectly by making inferences on neurological basis based on visible behaviour
evaluation of cognitive approach 3
- objective highly controlled methods of study to infer cognitive processes. involves the use of lab studies to produce reliable data
- machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and how this affects ability to process information
- application to outside world - suffers from too abstract and theoretical in nature therefore it may lack any external validity
define genotype
the particular set of genes that a person possesses.
define phenotype
are the way genes are expressed through characteristics which are determined by the environment
interaction between genotype and phenotype
phenotypes are determined by the environment. therefore some biological psychologists agree human behaviour is based on an interaction between inherited and environmental factors
define evolution
change in inherited characteristics in a biological population over generations
what are twin studies used to determine
certain traits have a biological basis by comparing the concordance rate
if identical twins MZ have a higher concordance rate than non identical DZ twins it would suggest a genetic basis.
3 assumptions of the biological approach
- everything psychological is at first biological
- mental processes such as thoughts ultimately have a physical basis
- understanding of brain can explain our thoughts and mental processes
evaluation of biological approach 3
- scientific methods use highly scientific studies including fMRI’s therefore highly reliable
- real world application increases the understanding of biochemical processes has led to the development of psychoactive drugs
- casual conclusions explanations for neurotransmitters. evidence from studies show drugs reduce symptoms of a mental disorder therefore assume neurochemicals cause a disorder - only association exists
what is the oral stage 4
- 0 – 1 years approximately
- The mouth is the main focus of pleasure during this stage
- The child enjoys tasting and sucking.
- The mother’s breast is the object of desire
what is the successful completion of the oral stage
weaning- eating independently
what is the consequence of unresolved conflict in the oral stage
Oral Fixation – sarcastic, critical, bite nails, may smoke.
what is the anal stage 3
- 1 year to 3 years
- Focus of pleasure is the anus.
- Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
what is the successful completion of the anal stage
potty training
what is the consequence of unresolved conflict of the anal stage
- Anally retentive - very tidy, stubborn, likes order and being in control, perfectionist, obsessive
- Anally expulsive - Thoughtless, messy
what is the phallic stage stage 4
- Around age 3-5 years
- Form of pleasure is the genital area
- Oedipus complex - Boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object’ & wants his father out of the way
- Electra complex – Girls experience penis envy; they desire their father, as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother
what is the successful completion of the phallic stage
- Boys identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values
- Girls identify with their mother and replace their desire for their father with desire for a baby
what is the unresolved consequence of the phallic stage
-Phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
what is the latency stage 6
- Age 6 to puberty approximately
- Earlier conflicts are repressed
- Sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies
- Focus on developing same sex friendships
- No particular requirements for successful completion
- Lull before the storm of puberty
what is the genital stage
- Puberty into adulthood
- Focus on genitals but not to same extent as phallic stage
- Sexual desires become conscious
- Task is to develop healthy adult relationships
- This should happen if earlier stages have been negotiated successfully
what his the consequence of unresolved conflict in the genital stage
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
the ID
- The Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.
- It is contained in the unconscious part of the mind
- The Id operates according to the “pleasure principle”
- The Id is present at birth and continues to be demanding of selfish needs throughout life.
The Ego 3
- The ego works on the ‘reality principle’ and is the mediator between the Id and Superego.
- The ego uses its cognitive abilities to manage and control the Id and balance its desires against the restrictions of reality and the superego
- The ego defends itself from id-superego struggles using various defense mechanisms
The Super ego 5
- The superego is the conscience and ego ideal
- The superego enforces moral restrictions and battles against id impulses
- Operates as the ‘morality principle’.
- It develops later in childhood around age 5 through identification with a same-sex parent, at which point the child internalizes the moral rules and social norms of society.
- The superego punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt.
three defence mechanisms
denial displacement and repression
define denial
You completely reject the thought or feeling and completely refuse to acknowledge some aspect of reality
define displacement
you transfer feelings from true sources of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
define repression
forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
three assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- Unconscious processes, of which we are unaware, determine our behaviour
- Personality has three parts: the id, ego and superego
- Early childhood experiences determine adult personality – psychosexual stages of development
evaluation of psychodynamic approach 3
explanatory power - Hughe influence on psychology remaining a dominant force in the first half of the 20th century
unstable concepts - does not meet the ability of falsification as his theories worked in the unconscious mind so could not be disproved
case study method - based on case studies such as Little Hans so the claims cannot be made universal based on such small studies
define self actualisation
the desire to grow and fulfilled ones full potential to become what you are capable of
Maslows hierarchy of needs
- self actualisation represents the uppermost levels of the Hierarchy of needs
- the four lower levels of the hierarchy are the deficiency levels which are needed
- there are psychological barriers to overcome to reach potential
Rogers ideas of self congruence
to achieve personal growth the concept of self must be equivalent to their ideal self
if too big a gap exists the person will experience a state of incongruence
what did Roger develop
client centered therapy
suggests that low esteem have roots in child hood experiences explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard
parents who set boundaries of love ‘conditions of worth’
evaluation of humanistic approach 3
positive approach -promoted a positive image of the human condition. Humanists offer a refreshing and optimistic alternative
relatively little real-world application. It has little impact within the discipline of psychology as it lacks a sound evidence base and due to the fact that the approach is decried, not as a comprehensive theory but as a loose set of abstract concepts
non reductionist-Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response.
COUNTERARGUMENT
advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person- may have more validity that its alternatives
the aim of the humanistic approach
an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experiences and each persons capacity for self determinisation
