gender

Question 1

define Klinefelter’s Syndrome 6

Answer 1

• an example of an atypical chromosome pattern
• affects between 1 in 500 and in 1 in 1000 people
• people who have this condition are biological male
• have an additional X chromosome (sex chromosome structure XXY)
• around 2/3 of people who have this syndrome are not aware of it
• diagnosis often comes about accidentally via a medical examination for some unrelated condition

Question 2

define the physical characteristics Klinefelter’s Syndrome 6

Answer 2

• one of the effects of the additional X chromosome is reduced body hair
• may be some breast development at puberty - gynecomastia
• ‘softening’ or ‘rounding’ body counters
• tend to have long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals
• problems with coordination and general clumsiness
• more susceptible to health problems usually more commonly found in females, e.g. breast cancer

Question 3

define the psychological characteristics Klinefelter’s Syndrome 3

Answer 3

• poorly developed language skills and reading ability
• tend to be passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity
• tend to not respond well to stressful situations and may often exhibit problems with ‘executive functions’ such as memory and problem solving

Question 4

define Turner’s Syndrome

Answer 4

approximately 1 in 5000 biological females have this
caused by an absence of one of the two allotted X chromosomes- referred to as X0.
-affected individuals have 45 chromosomes rather than 46

Question 5

define physical characteristics

Answer 5

• tend to not have a menstrual cycle
• their ovaries fail to develop and thus they are sterile
• do not develop breasts at puberty
• low set ears
• webbed neck
• high waist to hip ratio in that the hips aren’t much bigger than the waist
• physically immature

Question 6

define psychological characteristics

Answer 6

• higher than average reading ability
• performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is lower than normal
• socially immature
• have trouble fitting in

Question 7

evaluation of atypical sex chromosomes patterns

contribution to the nature-nurture debate

Answer 7

by comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome-typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences in the two group e.g. finding that people with Turner’s syndrome tend to have a higher verbal ability
it might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure
this suggests that innate nature influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour

Question 8

evaluation of atypical sex chromosomes

environment explanations

Answer 8

may be issues with suggest it is entirely nature
the relationship between the chromosomal abnormalities associated with Klinefelters and Turner’s Syndrome and the differences in behaviour seen in these individuals is not casual.
it may actually be the environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences seen in these individuals
e.g. social immaturity observed in females with Turner’s Syndrome may arise from the fact that they are treated immaturely by people around them
parents teacher etc may react to the pre-pubescent appearance in a way that encourages immaturity and this may have a direct impact upon their performance
wrong to assume that the observed psychological and behavioural differences are due to nature

Question 9

evaluation of atypical sex chromosomes

practical applications

Answer 9

continued research into atypical sex chromosomes patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of Turners and Klinefelter’s syndrome as well as a more positive outcome in the future
An Australian Study Herlihy et al 2011 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s showed that those who has been identified and treated from a very young age had significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood
suggests that increased awareness of these conditions may have practical application

Question 10

define Kholberg’s theory of gender

Answer 10

the cognitive-developmental theory of gender 1966 is based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender, including what country as appropriate gender-roles behaviours and attitudes becomes more sophisticated with age
understanding of gender runs parallel to intellectual development as the child matures biologically
Gender development is thought to progress through 3 stages

Question 11

define the 1st stage of Kohlberg’s theory of cognitive explanation for gender

Answer 11

Gender Identity

• at age of 2, children are able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or girl = gender identity
• at 3 most children are able to identify other people as male or female
• can correctly respond to questions such as ‘which one is like you’ if shown picture of a man or woman
• understanding of gender doesnt stretch much beyond simple labelling.
• not aware that sex is permanent

Question 12

define the 2nd stage of Kohlberg’s theory of cognitive explanation for gender

Answer 12

Gender Stability
at age of 4, children acquire gender stability
with this comes the realisation that they will always stay the same gender and that this is an aspect of themselves that remains constant overtime.
-children of this age cannot apply this logical to other people in other situations. They are often confused by external changes in appearance- they may describe a man who has long hair as a woman and they also believe that people change sex if they engage in activities that are more often associated with the opposite gender

Question 13

define the 3rd stage of Kohlberg’s theory of cognitive explanation for gender

Answer 13

Gender Constancy
final stage of development at around age 6
children recognise gender remains constant and consistent across time and situations, and this understanding is applied to other people’s gender as well as their own
as a consequence they are no longer fooled by changes in outward appearance
although they may regard a man wearing a dress as strange or unusual, this child is able to acknowledge that he is still a man underneath

Question 14

Kohlberg’s theory of cognitive development of gender

imitation of role models

Answer 14

gender constancy is significant in that children of this age begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify and imitate with
connect closely with ideas in social learning theory
for Kohlberg, once the child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence which confirms that concept

Question 15

evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory

evidence support the sequence of stages

Answer 15

Slaby and Frey 1975 study, children were presented with a split-screen images of males and females performing the same tasks
younger children spent roughly the same amount of time watching both sexes
children in the gender constancy stage, spent longer looking at the model who was the same sex as them.
this would suggest Kohlberg was correct in his assumption that children who have acquired constancy will actively seek gender-approparite models
Robert Munroe et al 1984 found cross cultural evidence of his theory as well

Question 16

evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory

constancy not supported

Answer 16

undermined by the observation that many children begin to demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved
Bussey and Bandura 1992 found that children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite.
contradicts what Kohlberg would predict, but may support gender schema theory which suggests that children begin to absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify themselves as male or female

Question 17

evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory

methodological issues

Answer 17

was developed using interview with children who were in some cases as young as 2 or 3
although the questions asked were tailored towards the particular age group he was dealing with, Kohlberg may not have acknowledged that very young children lack the vocabulary required to express their understanding
such children may have relatively complex ideas about gender but do not possess the verbal ability to articulate these
therefore what they express does not truly represent their understanding

Question 18

define the Gender Schema theory as a cognitive explanation for gender

Answer 18

Martin and Halverson’s account is a cognitive-developmental theory which argues that children’s understand of gender increases with age.
Also gender schema theory shares Kohlberg;s view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning, rather than by passively observing and imitating role models

Question 19

gender schema theory-

gender schema acquired with gender identity

Answer 19

schema are mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics.
thus, a gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and gender-appropriate behaviour
according to Martin and Halverson, once a child has established gender identity around the age of 2-3 years he or she will begin to teach the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema
this contrasts Kohlberg’s view that this process only begins after they have progresses through all three stages around age 7 with gender constancy

Question 20

gender schema theory

schema direct behaviour and self-understanding

Answer 20

schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits
for young children, schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes such as boys play with trucks
this provides a framework that directs experience as well as the children’s understanding itself
by 6 the child has rather fixed stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for its gender
for this reason, children are likely to misremember or disregard information that doesn’t fit with their existing schema

Question 21

gender schema theory

in-groups and outgroups

Answer 21

children have a better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender - the in-group
this is consistent with the idea children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity rather than that of the opposite gender - the outgroup
it is not until children older, about 8 that they develop elaborate schema for both genders as opposed to just their own
in-group identity also serves to bolster the Childs level of self-esteem

Question 22

evaluation of the gender schema theory

evidence supports gender schema theory

Answer 22

Martin and Halverson’s 1983 own study found that children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviour that photographs of gender-inconsistent behaviour when tested a week later.
children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent acitivity in the photographs when asked to recall them
supports the idea memory may be distorted to fit with existing gender schemas
Martin and Little 1990 found children under 4 showed no signs of gender stability but demonstrated strongly sex typed behaviours - consistent with predictions of gender schema theory

Question 23

evaluation of the gender schema theory

rigidity of gender beliefs

Answer 23

the theory accounts for young children tending to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes
information that conflicts with existing schema would be discounted or ignored in favour of information that confirms in-group schema
similarly children display a strong in-group bias in terms of how they process information and this is explained by the fact that children pay more attention to information that is relevant to their own experience
this can explain aspects of young children views of gender

Question 24

evaluation of the gender schema theory

overemphasis on the role of the individual in gender development

Answer 24

it is likely that the importance of schemas and other cognitive factor in determining behaviour are exaggerated within the theory
as with Kohlberg’s theory, there may not be sufficient attention paid to the role of social factors such as parental influence and the role of reward and punishments the child receives for their gendered behaviour
the theory does not really explain why the gender schema develop and take the form they do

Question 25

the role of chromosomes in sex and gender

Answer 25

• chromosomes are made from DNA
• genes are short sections of DNA that determine characteristics
• 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs, the last pair determining biological sex
• chromosome structure for females is XX and male XY
• normal cell cells have an X chromosome and the sperm carry an X and half a Y
• babies sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises the egg celll.
• the Y chromosome carried a gene called ‘sex-determining region Y’ or SRY. SRY causes testes to develop in an XY embryo producing androgens- male sex hormones which cause the embryo to become male, without them the embryo develops into a female

Question 26

the role of hormones in sex and gender

Answer 26

most gender development comes through the influence of hormones
prenatally in the womb hormones act upon brain development and cause development of the reproductive organs
at puberty during adolescence a burst of hormonal acitivty triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics e.g. pubic hair.
males and females produce many of the same hormones but in different concentrations
of primary importance in male development are a number of hormones called androgens, most widely known is testosterone

Question 27

define testosterone and its effect

Answer 27

male hormone which controls the development of male sex organs, which begins to be produced at around 8 weeks of foetal development
research has demonstrated the influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour e.g. Nanne Van de Poll et al 1988, showed that female rats who had been injected with testosterone become more physically and sexually aggressive

Question 28

define oestrogen and its effect

Answer 28

female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during the mentrual cycle - pre-menstural tension PMT or pre-menstural syndrome PMS
In extreme cases PMS has been used successfully as a defence in cases of crime

Question 29

define oxytocin and its effect

Answer 29

women produce oxytocin in much larger amounts than men
stimulates lactation making it possible for mothers to breastfeed their children
also reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding, for this reason it has been referred to as the ‘love hormone’
oxytocin is released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and Makes new mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby
the fact men produce less of this hormone has fuelled the stereotype than men are less interested in intimacy and closeness
however evidence suggests that both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during activities e.g. kissing and sexual intercourse

Question 30

evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

evidence supports the role of chromosomes and hormones

Answer 30

in relation to sex hormones James Dabbs et al 1995 found in a prison population, that offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes

Question 31

evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

contradictory evidence

Answer 31

in double-blind study Ray Tricker et al 1996, 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo
no significant differences in aggression were found after the ten-week period between the 2 groups
similarly Slabbekoorn et al 1999 demonstrated that sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender-related behaviour
small samples sizes or are conducted on animals limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made

Question 32

evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

objection to pre-menstrual syndorme

Answer 32

many commentators have questioned the effects of oestrogen levels on a woman’s mood and object to the medical category of PMS on the grounds that it stereotypes female experience and emotion
Feminist critiques e.g. Rodin 1992 claim that PMS is a social construction - not a biological fact but a way of privileging certain groups over others.
feminists have pointed to the medicalisation of women’s lives and the dismissal of women emotions especially anger by explaining them in biological terms