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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

laboratory experiment what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

Experiments where researchers create a controlled environment in order to test hypotheses.
Strength - Allow for the precise control of extraneous and independent variables and therefore allowing cause and effect to be established.
Weakness - The artificiality of the experiment may produce unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life , making it hard to generalise data to real life settings.

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2
Q

field

experiments what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

Experiments that take place outside of a laboratory, in a real world setting (experiments still manipulate independent variables).
Strength - More likely to reflect real life situations and responses because of its natural setting due to higher ecological validity.
Limitation - Little to no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results which also makes it hard for other researchers to replicate.

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3
Q

natural and quasi experiments what are they and strength and a weakness

A

Natural experiments are when the researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable.
strength - often have high external validity because they involve the study of real life issues and problems as they happen
weakness - a naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research.
Quasi experiments are a form of natural experiment, they have an independent variable that is based on an existing difference between people (eg. age and gender)
strength - often carried out in controlled conditions
weakness - cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables.

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4
Q

naturalistic observation what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

Naturalistic observation takes place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur. all aspects of the environment are free to vary.
strength - naturalistic observation tends to have high external validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life
weakness - lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult.

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5
Q

. controlled observation what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

A controlled study is where the researcher pre-determines and controls the study variables and location, time, participants used and tools used to complete the study whilst in a controlled environment.
Strength - They can be easily replicated by other researchers so can be used to test for reliability.
Weakness - They lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect as participants may act differently when they know they are being watched.

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6
Q

Observational design: behavioural

categories

A

When conducting structured observations, psychologists have to decide which specific behaviours should be examined.
They need to operationalise the behaviour through the use of behavioural categories.
This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting, kicking).

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7
Q

event sampling what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

A method used to collect data in an observation. This is when the observer tally’s every time the event occurs within their observation period
Strength - you don’t miss any behaviours as you record every time it happens
Weakness - observer fatigue - you might miss something as you have to watch the whole time

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8
Q

time sampling what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

A method used to collect data in an observation. This is when an observer will only tally the behaviours that are occurring at that specific time e.g. every 3 minutes.
Strength - there is no observer fatigue - you don’t have to watch for the whole time only every 5 minutes or a time you decide
Weakness- you might miss behaviours as you are only watching at certain times and not all the time

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9
Q

covert observation what is it and a strength and a

weakness

A

Covert observation is also known as undisclosed observation, as the participants do not know that they are being observed. The researcher observes the participants from within the group.
Strength: high validity as people are observed in natural surroundings.
Weakness: has raised ethical concerns as participants haven’t been informed that they are being observed.

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10
Q

overt observation what is it and a

strength and a weakness

A

Overt observation is where the participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed by researchers.
Strength: this is the most ethical form of observation, as it requires no deception, and participants are able to give their informed consent.
Weakness: participants may act differently because they know they are being observed, which will affect the validity of the results.

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11
Q

. participant observation what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing.
Strength -Allows researcher to gain empathy through personal experience . By acting as a member can get insight into their meanings, viewpoints, values and problems - gives authentic data
weakness - Bias - risk of getting to involved and therefore giving biassed data, may begin to sympathise with the group and not be objective

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12
Q

non-participant observation what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

researchers collect data by observing behaviour without actively interacting with the participants. strength: it levels out researcher biases.
weakness: lacks validity because you are less able to ask why people are acting that way compared to participant observation.

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13
Q

Self-report techniques.

Definition and 2 examples

A

A self-report measure is any test, measure or survey that relies on an individual’s own report of their symptoms, behaviours, beliefs or attitudes.
E.G diary entry reports , questionnaires

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14
Q

Questionnaires what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to. They can be administered in person, by post, online, over the telephone, or to a group of participants simultaneously.
STRENGTH : they are relatively cheap and quick to gather a large amount of data
WEAKNESS : demand characteristics stics - participants may be untruthful as they may feel uncomfortable with the actual truth or may want to try to purposely fit the criteria that the experimenter is looking for

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15
Q

open questions what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

An open question is used in questionnaires and interviews. They do not have fixed responses so they allow the participant to answer however they wish.
Strength - permits an unlimited range of answers.
Weakness- takes more time as there is limited control over the length of answers.

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16
Q

closed questions what is it and a

strength and a weakness

A

A closed question is one that has a limited range of options to answer with. You can only answer using the options provided.
Strength - improves consistency of respondents.
Weakness - it can put ideas into the respondents’ heads that were not there before.

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17
Q

interviews: what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

meeting of people face to face for consultation.
Strength: can get detailed qualitative information without oversimplifying complex issues
Weakness: Interviews can cause biases, the person being interviewed may give a different response based on how the person conducting reacts or their appearance

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18
Q

structured: interviews what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

A structured interview is where the interviewer uses a set of prepared, closed ended questions.
Strength: Less bias as everyone is getting asked the exact same questions Weakness: Responses are not very detailed or qualitative

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19
Q

unstructured. interviews what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

An unstructured interview is where questions are not prearranged. They are more like a ‘guided conversation’.
Strength: They generate qualitative data which means participants can give depth to their answers due to the questions being open. This allows researchers to have a greater understanding of individuals’ experiences.
Weakness: can be time-consuming to conduct and analyse qualitative interview techniques. May also be expensive if particular skills are required by the interviewer.

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20
Q

Correlations what is it and a strength and a weakness

A

correlation is the extent to which two variables are related. Correlations can be positive, negative or zero.
strength allows researchers to investigate variables which may be difficult to test otherwise.

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21
Q

correlation coefficients what are they and what do they tell you

A

Psychologists use a statistic called a correlation coefficient to measure the strength of a correlation (the relationship between two or more variables). A correlation coefficient can range between -1.0 (perfect negative) and +1.0 (perfect positive).

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22
Q

The difference between correlations and experiments.

A

correlation: identifies variables and looks for a relationship between them. whereas an experiment: tests the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable.

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23
Q

Content analysis the 5 steps in a content analysis

A

A content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data, allowing a researcher to turn qualitative data to quantitative data.
Step 1: Identify and Collect Data.
Step 2: Determine Behavioural Categories.
Step 3: tally the behavioural categories
Step 4: Analyse and Present Results.
Step 4: Check the interrater reliability.- DO A CORRELATION (+.80)

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24
Q

Thematic analysis what is it, how

different to a content analysis and a strength and a weakness

A

Thematic analysis is a method of qualitative data analysis which is good for exploring patterns across qualitative data. kEEPS THE DATA QUALITATIVE . On the other hand, a content analysis can be used to analyse qualitative or quantitative data.
Strength - Applicable with all forms of data
Weakness - The flexibility of a thematic analysis can lead to inconsistency and a lack of coherence when developing themes derived from the research data

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25
Q

Case studies what is it and an example and a strength and a weakness

A

A case study is the study of a person with a disorder that could be through experiments or interviews. An example of case study was from Freud’s research, Little Hans.
+ provides rich detailed qualitative data
- Often cannot be generalised to wider society

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26
Q

Aims: what does it mean to state your aims in an experiment ?

A

An aim is the direct purpose of the investigation. What the researcher is trying to find out.

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27
Q

What is the difference between aims and hypotheses in an experiment

A

An aim is a statement which explains what the experiment is attempting to achieve. A hypothesis is a prediction the scientist who is undertaking the experiment makes before starting of what they think will happen.

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28
Q

An aim is a statement which explains what the experiment is attempting to achieve. A hypothesis is a prediction the scientist who is undertaking the experiment makes before starting of what they think will happen.

A

Directional Hypothesis: states that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable and what that effect will be (the direction of results).
Non-Directional Hypothesis: hypothesis simply states that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable but does not predict how it will affect the results.

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29
Q

Sampling: what is the difference between population and sample

A

population is the entire group that you want to draw a conclusion about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect the data from.

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30
Q

Random sampling what is it and state the problems with bias and generalisation

A 
Random sampling is a sampling technique in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
The data received from a randomly sampled piece of research could be the result of accidental bias as you can’t ensure that there is equality in: gender equality, age, social class etc.
This then is generalised to the whole population when maybe not everyone is accounted for.
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31
Q

Systematic sampling what is it and state the problems with bias and generalisation

A

type of sampling process in which all the members of a population are listed and then some objective, orderly procedure is applied to randomly choose specific cases
bias is when a person views are distorted in some way
generalisation is the application of results from a study to a wider target population

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32
Q

stratified sampling what is it and state the problems with bias and generalisation

A 
Stratified sampling is a sampling technique where the researcher divides or 'stratifies' the target group into sections, each representing a key group (or characteristic) that should be present in the final sample.For example, if a class has 20 students, 18 male and 2 female, and a researcher wanted a sample of 10, the sample would consist of 9 randomly chosen males and 1 randomly chosen female, to represent this population.
Strengths It avoids the problem of bias sometimes caused by purely random sampling. Weaknesses Care must be taken to ensure each key characteristic present in the population is selected across strata, otherwise this will design a biased sample.
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33
Q

opportunity sampling what is it and state the problems with bias and generalisation

A

Participants who are both accessible and willing to take part are targeted, e.g. employees from a conveniently located employer near the laboratory could be selected for the sample group.
Strengths This method is easy and inexpensive to carry out.
Weaknesses The consequent sample may not be representative as it could be subject to bias (e.g. the conveniently located employer may undertake a selection process for job applicants, making it likely that employees possess certain similar characteristics that are unrepresentative of the wider target group).

34
Q

volunteer sampling what is it and state the problems with bias and generalisation

A

Here the sample consists of people who have volunteered to be in the study.
StrengthsThis often achieves a large sample size through reaching a wide audience, for example with online advertisements.

WeaknessesThose who respond to the call for volunteers may all display similar characteristics (such as being more trusting or cooperative than those who did not apply) thus increasing the chances of yielding an unrepresentative sample.

35
Q

Pilot studies : what is it

A

Pilot studies are small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements

36
Q

aims of piloting. list 3 reasons you do a pilot study

A
  1. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation.
  2. Any part of the study could be tested, for instance the validity of measure (e.g. does the questionnaire measure what it is supposed to?)
  3. whether a procedure is effective (e.g. does it take too long, are the instructions too complicated for participants to understand, or have any vital steps been left out).
37
Q

What is the difference between experimental design and experimental type

A

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different groups in an experiment whereas experimental type refers to whether it’s a lab, field, natural or quasi experiment.

38
Q

repeated measures what is this and

strength and a weakness

A

In a repeated measures design, all participants take part in all conditions. The DV is measured for each group and results are compared.
Strength: DV not affected by individual differences
Weakness: may be affected by the practice/order effect so counterbalancing is needed

39
Q

independent groups what is this and

strength and a weakness

A

Independent Groups: two groups are exposed to different experimental conditions. Strength: Prevents practice effect and demand characteristics.
Weakness: Can result in false conclusions because of individual differences.

40
Q

matched pairs what is this and strength and a weakness

A

Matched Pairs: a pair of participants are matched by key variables, such as income. Strength: Lots of experimental control.
Weakness: It takes a lot of time.

41
Q

What does it mean to manipulate the

independent variable

A

These are the variables you change for the experiment

42
Q

What does it mean to control your variables in an experiment

A

These are the variables you keep the same during the experiment

43
Q

What is the Independent variable in an experiment

A

An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated by the researcher

44
Q

. What is the dependent variable in an experiment

A

dependent variable is the variable that is being measured in an experiment

45
Q

What is the difference between a confounding and extraneous variable in an experiment

A

An extraneous variable is something that you’re not investigating but can affect the dependent variable. The confounding variable is similar yet it’s caused by the independent variable.

46
Q

What does it mean to operationalise the variables in an experiment

A

Changing a variable to make it measurable.

47
Q

What does random allocation mean in experimental design

A

technique that chooses participants for experimental groups and control groups entirely by chance.

48
Q

What does counterbalancing mean in a repeated measures experiment

A

technique used to deal with order effects in a repeated measures design. Completing the conditions in a different order.

49
Q

What experimental design should

counterbalancing be used and what problem does it solve

A

counterbalancing should be used when you have a repeated measures experiment. It solves the problem of order effects

50
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

where a person changes their behaviour when they know they are part of psychological research

51
Q

What are investigator effects.

A

Investigator effects are where a researcher acts in a way to support their theory. For example, in Zimbardo’s prison study he made himself warden, this means he could have subconsciously acted in a way to change the results of the study.

52
Q

What is the role of the British

Psychological Society’s code of ethics

A

The aim of the British psychological society’s code of ethics is to guide psychologists decision-making while conducting experiments.

53
Q

How would you deal with the following ethical issue in research- Confidentiality

A

Participants must be asked during the debrief of the experiment whether the want their results to be published all names and personal information must also be removed from the experiment findings

54
Q

How would you deal with the following ethical issue in research- Right to withdraw

A

Participants must be given the right to withdraw at any point throughout the experiment, even if the participant is being deceived.

55
Q

. How would you deal with the following ethical issue in research? Protection from harm.

A

All research should be pre-approved by an ethics committee to minimise harm to participants, however the researcher additionally should take the participants through a debriefing so they are aware exactly what happened during the experiment.

56
Q

How would you deal with the following ethical issue in research? Deception.

A

Participants should not be deceived for an experiment but if it is necessary for the validity of the data then at the end the researcher must debrief them to inform them on what happened.

57
Q

How would you deal with the following ethical issue in research. Informed consent

A

Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they give consent to take part.

58
Q

What is the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques.

A

Quantitative data is information about quantities and numbers whereas qualitative data is descriptive which can be observed but not measured.

59
Q

What is Primary data ? a strength and a weakness

A

Primary data refers to data that has been collected directly by the researcher, solely for the purpose of their investigation.
Strength - Primary data is a reliable way to collect data because the researcher can do it again as they know the procedures.
Weakness - Researchers may be subjective in what kinds of data they look for in particular data that fits the hypothesis they are trying to test.

60
Q

What is secondary data a strength and a weakness

A

Secondary data is information that someone else has collected
Strength - it is cost effective as there is no need to spend money on collecting data.
Weakness - the data may be biased in favour of the person who gathered it.

61
Q

What is a meta-analysis ? an example and a strength and a weakness

A

A meta-analysis is a systematic review where you identify an aim and then search for research studies that have looked at similar aims/hypotheses. This is done by looking through databases and deciding what studies to include.
Strengths: Increases the validity of the conclusions drawn as they’re based on a wider range of data.
Weaknesses: Research designs can vary between different studies so they can’t be compared fairly.

62
Q

What are descriptive statistics

A

Descriptive statistics describe the data and show a summary of the results. Examples of descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency (mode, mean, median) and measures of dispersion (range, variance).

63
Q

What are measures of central tendency

A

There are three main measures of central tendency, mode, median and mean

64
Q

What is the mean ? give a strength and a weakness

A

The mean is the average, it’s when you add the value of each number and divide it by how many numbers there are. A strength of the mean is that it is an accurate average as it takes all the data into account

65
Q

calculation of mean

A

Add the numbers up then divide by how many there are

66
Q

What is the mode ? give a strength and a weakness

A

The number that occurs the most often
Strength - it’s unaffected by extreme scores
Weakness - it doesn’t take all the scores of the data into consideration

67
Q

calculation of mode

A

Mode is the number that occurs the most often. Put the numbers in order from lowest to highest. Work out which number appears most.
e.g 1,3,3,3,4,6 mode= 3

68
Q

What is the median? give a strength and a weakness

A

median is the measure of central tendency that is calculated by finding the middle score when the data set is placed in numerical order.
Strength= unaffected by extreme values. Makes the median score more representative of the whole data set, making this a strength as a median can be said to be an accurate measure of central tendency.
Weakness= doesn’t take all the scores in the data set into consideration as it is only concerned with the middle number. This is a weakness because it means all the other data is ignored and therefore might not be an accurate measure of central tendency.

69
Q

calculation of median

A

The median is a measure of central tendency that is calculated by finding the middle score when the data set is placed in numerical order. If there is an even number of data, then the median is the sum of the two middle numbers, divided by two.

70
Q

What are measures of dispersion

A

Measures of dispersion describe the spread of data around a central value (mean, median or mode). They tell us how much variability there is in the data. There are two measures of dispersion: range and standard deviation (SD)

71
Q

What is the range give a strength and a weakness

A

Range- Is the difference between your highest and lowest values.
Strength- easy to calculate mathematically without using a calculator. Weakness- Does Not indicate the distribution pattern across the whole data set.

72
Q

calculation of range

A

Smallest value subtracted from the largest value.

73
Q

What is standard deviation as a

measure of dispersion

A

measure which shows to what extent the values in a set of data deviate from the mean.

74
Q

Method for the calculation of

percentages

A

(value/total value)x100

75
Q

What are positive, negative and zero correlations and what do they tell us

A

Positive - As y increases, x increases
Negative - As y increases, x decreases

No correlation - A change in y has no apparent effect on x

76
Q

When do you use a scattergram ?

A

When you want to compare pairs of numerical data

77
Q

When do you use a bar chart ?

A

You would use a bar chart to compare the effect of a variable on different groups and/or track changes over time.

78
Q

Draw a normal distribution. Draw the mean media and mode. What does it mean ?

A

The mean, median, and mode of a normal distribution are equal. The area under the normal curve is equal to 1.0. Normal distributions are denser in the centre and less dense at the sides, having a symmetrical, bell shape curve.

79
Q

Draw a positively skewed distribution. Draw the mean, median and mode. What does it mean ?

A

Data that is positively skewed has a long tail that extends to the right. when data is positively skewed, the mean will be greater than the median

80
Q

Draw a negatively skewed distribution. Draw the mean, median and mode. What does it mean ?

A

Data that is negatively skewed has a long tail that extends to the left. when data is negatively skewed, the median will be greater than the mean

Psychology-Paper 3 (5 decks)

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