Research methods 1/2 Flashcards
Operationalise definition
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
What are the 3 (4) types of hypothesis?
Alternative
* Directional
* Non-directional
Null
When to use a directional hypothesis
When there is previous research that can predict the direction of results
When to use a non-directional hypothesis
When there is no previous research, OR contradictory previous research so you cannot predict the direction of results
How to writer a null hypothesis
When you predict there will be ‘no difference’ between the IV and DV
How to write a non directional hypothesis
Write there ‘will be a difference’ between the IV and the DV
How to write a directional hypothesis
When you write one variable will be more/less …
Difference between an aim and hypothesis
Aim = what you aim to study
Hypothesis = what you predict will happen
What is an extraneous variable
Something ( that is not the IV) that AFFECTS BOTH GROUPS e.g. background noise in both conditions
Does not vary systematically with the IV
What is a confounding variable
Something that is a major advantage or disadvantage for ONE CONDITION (basically a new IV)
Does vary systematically with the IV
What is demand characteristics
Clues that may help a participant to guess the aim of the study and so change their behaviour
What are investigator effects
How the researchers behaviour may affect the outcome of the experiment (often unconscious actions or may be fraud)
What is randomisation
The use of chance methods (e.g. lottery method) to reduce the investigators unconscious bias
What is standardisation
Where there is a list of exactly everything that will be done to ensure everything is the same (increased repeatability)
What are participant variables
Any individual differences between participants that may affect the DV (e.g. age on memory)
What are situational variables
Any features of the experimental situation that may affect the DV (e.g. background noise/temperature)
What is social desirability bias
When participants may act differently to respond to what may be viewed favourably by other participants
What is a single blind design
When the participant is not aware of the aim but researcher is
What is a double blind design
When neither the researcher or participant knows the aim
What is an experimental method
The manipulation of the IV to see the effect on the DV to establish cause and effect relationships
What is a laboratory experiment
Carried out in a highly controlled environment e.g. lab or classroom, and the IV is manipulated by the researcher
What is a field experiment
When the IV is manipulated in a more everyday setting, the researcher goes into a participants usual environment rather than e.g. a lab
What is a natural experiment
The researcher measures the effect of the IV on the DV in a naturally occurring situation e.g. levels of stress in 9/11
What is a quasi experiment
When the IV is based on existing between people e.g. age or gender, no one manipulates the variable is simply exists
Strengths of a lab experiment
- Have high control over extraneous and confounding variables so any result on the DV is likely from manipulation of the IV
- Replication is more possible due to the control
Weaknesses of lab experiments
- May lack generalisability, controlled environment may be artificial - participants may behave strangely and have unusual behaviour (demand characteristics)
- Actions participants are asked to carry out may not represent everyday life (low mundane realism)
Strengths of field experiments
- Higher mundane realism as more natural
- Participants are more likely to behave more authentically especially if they are not aware of the study (less demand characteristics)
Weaknesses of field experiments
- Less control over extraneous and confounding variables, the effect between the IV and DV is lost, thus harder to replicate
- Can have ethical issues, if a participant is unaware of the study they cannot give informed consent thus may be an invasion of privacy
Strengths of natural experiments
- Provides opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons (e.g. stress in 9/11)
- Often have high external validity as they involve the study of real world issues as they happen
Weaknesses of natural experiments
- A naturally occurring event may happen rarely which reduces the opportunity for research - also makes the experiment less repeatable as difficult to find similar situations
- Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so bias may be involved and researcher will be less sure if cause and effect can be seen between the IV and the DV
Strengths of quasi experiments
- Often carried out in controlled conditions:
- Easier replication
- Less likely to experience extraneous or confounding variables (most of the time)
Weaknesses of quasi experiments
- Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables
- The IV is not deliberately changed thus we cannot claim that it has caused any observable change
Difference between natural and quasi experiments
natural - IV will change naturally e.g. time of day but it cannot be manipulated
quasi - something interesting about participants that is studied but cannot be changed
What is validity
The extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure
What is internal validity
When effects are from the IV rather than an extraneous of confounding variable, demand characteristics can greatly influence this
What is mundane realism
How realistic something is to everyday life
What is external validity
How easy it is to generalise to particular places, people, times, and cultures outside of the study
What is ecological validity (EV)
How easy it is to generalise to particular settings
What is population validity (EV)
How easy it is to generalise to people
What is temporal validity (EV)
How research at a certain time reflects actual current behaviour
What is cultural validity
How easy it is to generalise to other cultures
What is a type of experiment
When the researcher has an IV that they manipulate, or is naturally occurring, how and where it takes place
What is an experimental design
How participants are allocated to the conditions of the experiment
What is independent groups
When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions
What is matched pairs
When participants are matched together depending on a variable (e.g. memory experiment, people with similar IQs matched: 1st + 2nd, 3rd + 4th etc), one from each pair is assigned to group A or B
What is repeated measures
When all participants experience both conditions
What is random allocation
An attempt to control participant variables in independent groups so each participant had and equal likelihood of being in both conditions
What is counterbalancing
To control order effect in repeated measures: half participants in one order, half in the other order
Strengths of independent groups
- Order effects are not and issue (take part in one condition
- Less likely to experience demand characteristics
- Can use the same material in both groups, so is standardised
Weaknesses of independent groups
- Less economical as participants produce one result, need to double participants to be similar to repeated design = more cost
- Variety in participant variables, a mean difference could be due to a variable such as age (e.g. memory is worse with age), so random allocation used (confounding to extraneous variable)
Strengths of matched pairs
- Participants only in one condition so less likely to have a problem of order effects and demand characteristics
- Reduced participant variables as people are matched
Weaknesses of matched pairs
- Participant variables cannot be exactly matched, may still be differences that affect the DV: pilot study used
- Matching may be time consuming and expensive, less economical: however you could match them on fewer variables or get a computer to do so.
Strengths of repeated measures
- Participant variables controlled, thus higher validity
- More economical, fewer participants needed
Weaknesses of repeated measures
- Order effects may be an issue, so counter balancing used
- Order could create boredom or fatigue effect so will perform better in the first group
- Performance may improve throughout (practice effect), so will perform better in second condition
- Demand characteristics may be an issue as in both conditions
- Can’t use same material in both groups so not standardised, but can use equally difficult material (e.g. word lists with same number of syllables)
What is a sampling technique
The method used to select people from a population
What is a sample
People who take part in a research investigation. IS drawn from a target population and is meant to be representative
What is a population
A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a sample is drawn from
What is a volunteer sample
When participants select themselves to be a part of the sample, the researcher may put out an advert to find people
What is an opportunity sample
People from target populations can be hard to obtain so researchers often select whoever happens to be willing and available, and will ask people, e.g. in the street.
What is a random sample
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. A list of members is made and the names are assigned a number, the sample is drawn through a lottery method
What is a stratified sample
When the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population.
The researcher identifies the strata in a population. Then the percentages of the sample to be representative are calculated, the the participants that make up each stratum are randomly selected (lottery method)
What is a systematic sample
When the nth number of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced and the target population is organised in, for instance, alphabetical order and every 3rd person is chosen (e.g. houses) - researcher works until frame is complete
What is bias
When certain groups are over, or under, represented within the selected sample, e.g. too many older/younger people in a sample
What is generalisation
The extent to which findings from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population
Strength of a random sample
- Potentially unbiased, so confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divided between different groups, enhancing internal validity
Weaknesses of a random sample
- Difficult and time consuming to conduct and find a completed sample of the target population, so may end up being biased
- May be unrepresentative, but should give a more representative sample than e.g. opportunity
- Participants may refuse to partake and will be more like a volunteer sample
Strengths of an opportunity sample
- Convenient
- Less costly in time and money as members of a target population is not required
Weaknesses of an opportunity sample
Suffer from two forms of bias:
- Sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific area e.g. one street in a town, so findings cannot be generalised
- Researcher has complete control over who is picked so may avoid people whom they do not like the look of (researcher bias)
Strengths of a volunteer sample
- Collecting the sample is easy - requires minimal input from the researcher, so less time consuming
- Ends up with participants who are more engaged (as they volunteered, so interested) that e.g. someone who was stopped in the street and may suffer from boredom/fatigue effects as not interested
Strength of a stratified sample
- Produces the MOST REPRESENTITIVE sample, meaning generalisation of finings becomes possible
Weaknesses of a stratified sample
- The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of target population is not possible
- Participants may refuse to take part
Strengths of a systematic sample
- Potentially reduces bias within the sample
- Easy and convenient to use
- Objective, once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence on who us chosen (no researcher bias)
Weaknesses of systematic sampling
- Method is time consuming
- Participants may refuse to partake
- Sample may be unrepresentative e.g. if every 4th person is male
What are ethical issues
Arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
What are ethical guidelines
‘Rules’ that psychologists should follow in order to make their investigation ethical. Creates by BPS
What is informed consent
Making participants aware of aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (inc right to withdraw) and what their data will be used for. They should then make an informed judgement whether to take part - demand characteristics now a potential issue
What is deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding info from participants. Anyone who has been lied to or not been given the whole truth cannot be said to have given informed consent. Can be justified if it does not cause undue stress
What is protection from harm
Participants should not be placed in any more risk than they would be in their daily lives. They shouldn’t be made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or be placed under undue stress (psychological harm), should be reminded they have the right to withdraw
What is confidentiality
The right to have any personal data protected (in law under the data protection act)
What is privacy
Participants have the right to control info about themselves
What is the right to withdraw
The participant should be made aware they have the right to leave the study at any point (with penalty) I.e. to leave at any time and remove their data
What is debriefing
The procedure for revealing the true purpose of a psychological study to a research participant at the conclusion of a research station
What is presumptive consent
Rather than getting consent form the participant themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if the group agrees the consent of original participants is ‘presumed’
What is prior general consent
Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies - including one that will include deception. By consenting, participants are consenting to be deceived
What is retrospective consent
Asked for their consent (in debriefing) having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
What is cost-benefit analysis
The responsibility of ethics committees to weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether a research study should go ahead. Benefits might include the value or groundbreaking nature of the research. Possible costs may be the damaging effect on individual participants or to the reputation of psychology as a whole.
What is the BPS code of ethics
a quasi-legal document produced by the BPS that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity. If people to not follow this they can lose their jobs
How to overcome informed consent
Participants should be issued with a consent form detailing all relevant info that might affect their decision to participate, needs to be signed or cannot be studied. Parental consent needed if under 16
How to overcome deception and protection from harm
Participants should be given a full debrief and should be made aware of the full aims and details not mentioned previously of the study.
They should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data if they wish (particularly important for retrospective consent).
Natural concerns should be reassured
Counselling will be given if needed
No greater harm than they would experience in everyday life
How to overcome confidentiality
Personal details must be protected, it is more usual, though, to record no personal details e.g. maintain anonymity (number, initials or pseudonym e.g. patient X). During the briefing and debriefing, participants should be reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process.
How to overcome the right to withdraw
Repeatedly tell them (on consent form, debrief sheet, and in the study) they are allow to leave
How to write a consent form
In appropriate register
1. Title
2. Introduction of purpose + brief background details
3. Answers to FAQs (prose) - do I have to take part?, what will happen?, how long?, where?, risks?, advantages?, results?
4. Thank you
5. Name and email
6. confirmation (read, opp to ask, understand voluntary, agree)
7. signature and date
How to write a debrief sheet
Written so can be read out to participants
1. true aim
2. if independent groups - both conditions
3. any questions, who to address
4. ethical considerations - right to withdraw, privacy, confidentiality
5. Offer someone to talk to
6. Thank you
What is a pilot study
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc, work. The aim is to also allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary.
Aims of a pilot study
To check the investigation runs smoothly with a handful of participants, in observational studies - coding methods can be checked before the real investigation is undertaken
What is a correlation
A mathematical technique in which researcher investigates a relationship between two covariables
What is a positive correlation
As one covariable increases so does the other
What is a negative correlation
As one covariable decreases so does the other
What is a zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables
What are co variables
Variables within the correlation
What is a curvilinear relationship
When co-variables form a curved relationship instead of a straight one
What is a correlation co-efficient
A number between -ve 1 and +ve 1 which represents the direction and strength between co-variables
What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment
A correlation shows the relationship between variables, whereas an experiment tests for cause and effect by manipulating the IV
Strengths of a correlation
- Easy to analyse data as it is easier to visualise
- Useful for identifying trends between data
Weaknesses of a correlation
- Cannot determine the cause (to see cause and effect)
- Can be influenced by extraneous or confounding variables
- Intervening variable - 3rd variable that could explain the relationship between 2 co-variables.
What is an abstract in a psychological report
Summary of the study including aims, hypothesis, method (procedures), results, conclusions and implications. It allows the reader to determine if the rest of the report is worth reading.
What is an introduction in a psychological report
· Review of previous research (theories, concepts and studies) that are relevant to the current study
· It should lead logically to your research so that the reader is convinced why you’re doing the research
· It should be like a funnel – start really general and then become more specific
Ends with the researcher stating their aims and hypotheses
What is a method in a psychological report
a detailed description of what the researcher did. There should be enough detail for someone to precisely replicate your study. The method is divided into different sections:
· Design
· Participants
· Apparatus/materials
· Procedures
· Ethics
What is in design in the method section of a psychological report
- Experiment: lab, field or natural? which experimental design (rm - counterbalancing, controlled EVs), how was IV and DV operationalised?
- Questionnaire/interview: structured, semi-structured, unstructured? IV + DV operationalised, type of questions
- Observation: naturalistic/ controlled? direct or indirect? structured of unstructured? Overt or covert?
What is in participants in the method section of a psychological report
· Identify a suitable sampling technique (volunteer, opportunity or random) and explain how and why it was used.
· Explain who the participants were – number, occupation, nationality, gender (as long as it won’t compromise confidentiality).
· If using an independent groups design, explain how participants were assigned to the conditions
- In an observational study, sampling applies to the participants, but ALSO to how often observations were recorded (time or event sampling)
What is in apparatus/materials in method of a psychological report
· Consider what materials were used and describe them e.g. consent form, standardised instructions, anything you give the participants to read or look at.
- For questionnaires/interviews – include examples of questions.
What is in procedure in a method of a psychological report
The most important thing here is to make sure that someone could REPLICATE (repeat) your study. It is essentially a list of what happened from beginning to end, but written in prose.
· Outline any standardised instructions given to the participants and what was on the consent form and debrief sheet.
· Explain when and what materials were used, when and where the participants are tested, how long they will have etc.
- Conduct a pilot study – explain what happened in a pilot study where people from the same target population were tested using the materials and standardised instructions. Explain any necessary changes.
What is in ethics in method of a psychological report
· Identify any ethical issues that might arise and how these could be dealt with.
What is in results in a psychological report
what the researcher found, including:
· Descriptive statistics – tables and graphs showing frequencies and measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion
· Inferential statistics – calculated values, critical values, significance levels and a justification of which test has been chosen. There should also be a statement about whether the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected
- If the study uses qualitative research, then categories and themes are described with examples of each category/theme.
What is in the discussion of a psychological report
the researcher aims to interpret the results and consider their implications:
· Summary of the results – the results are briefly reported in a verbal rather than statistical form and some explanation is given about what they show
· Relationship to previous research – the results are compared to the research in the introduction and possibly other research
· Strengths and weaknesses of the methodology, with improvements suggested
· Implications for theories and possible real-world applications
· The contribution that the investigation has made to the existing knowledge-base within the field
- Suggestions for future research
What is in references in a psychological report
the full details of any journal articles, book or websites that are mentioned.
What is in the appendices in a psychological report
where any materials and raw data are presented
What is peer review
A peer review is the process by which psychological research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists who work in a similar field. This is done before publication so that the research can be considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality and so that all research that is published is of a high quality.
What are the purposes of a peer review
- Allocation of research funding - Reviews enable public bodies (e.g. the Medical Research Council) to decide which research is likely to be worthwhile.
- Publication of research in scientific journals and books. The peer review process means that incorrect or faulty data is much less likely to enter the public domain.
- Assessing the research rating of university departments. Future funding for the department depends on receiving good ratings from peer reviews conducted by the Research Excellence Framework (REF).
Why is peer review important
- To check validity
- Judge how important the research is in a psychological context
- To see whether work can be published as it is or if it needs revising or to be rejected
- That a research paper has integrity
- Unserious effect is research is false
Peer review process
- See if research can be published as it is, should be revised or should be rejected for resubmission or outright rejection
- Usually single blind (hide reviewers, may plagiarise)
- Double blind: remain anonymous
- Open review - honesty? watered down?
