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Psychology: Paper 2 > Research Methds > Flashcards

Research Methds Flashcards

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1
Q

Fearures-
What is objectivity?

A

Data interpretation should not be affected by a person’s beliefs, expectations and biases

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2
Q

Features-
What is empirical methods?

A

Hypothesis should be tested by carrying out research using a recognised technique

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3
Q

Features-
What is replicability?

A

Studies should be able to be repeated to check reliability

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4
Q

Features-
What is falsifiability?

A

Studies should be able to be proven right or wrong

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5
Q

Features-
What is theory construction?

A

Theories explain human behaviour, they represent our best current understanding. Theories should be based on empirical evidence

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6
Q

Features-
What is hypothesis testing?

A

Hypothesis should be tested using empirical methods

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7
Q

Features-
What are paradigms?

A

Set ways of approaching and understanding something. A paradigm shift is when a new theory replaces an old one.

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8
Q

Features-
What is an independent variable?

A

The thing that is changed/manipulated

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9
Q

Features-
What is a dependant variable?

A

The thing you measure/ the thing being manipulated by the independent variable

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10
Q

Features-
What are demand characteristics?

A

When a participant changes their response to the experiment to appeal to the study

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11
Q

Features-
What does it mean when we say operationalise?

A

To make the study less vague

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12
Q

Experimental methods-
What are the experimental methods?

A

Laboratory, field, natural, quasi

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13
Q

Experimental methods-
What are two advantages of empirical methods?

A
  • high control over variables
  • increase replicability and reliability
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14
Q

Experimental methods-
What are two disadvantages of experimental methods?

A
  • artificial (low ecological validity)
  • demand characteristics
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15
Q

Experimental methods-
Which method has the highest level of control?

A

Lab

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16
Q

Experimental methods-
Where are field experiments conducted?

A

In a pps natural environment

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17
Q

Experimental methods-
In a natural experiment is the IV manipulated?

A

The IV is not directly manipulated and in a natural experiment it is something that was going to change anyway.

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18
Q

Experimental methods-
What is a quasi experiment?

A

It has an IV which forms a part of the participant (age/ gender) which cannot be controlled by the researcher

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19
Q

Experimental methods-
Replicability is an advantage of which experimental methods?

A

Lab and Quasi

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20
Q

Experimental methods-
Replicability is a disadvantage of which experimental methods?

A

Field and natural

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21
Q

Experimental methods-
Control is a strength of which methods?

A

Lab and quasi

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22
Q

Experimental methods-
Control is a disadvantage of which methods?

A

Field and natural

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23
Q

Experimental methods-
Demand characteristics are an advantage of which methods?

A

Field

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24
Q

Experimental Methods-
Demand characteristics are a disadvantage if which methods?

A

Lab

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25
Q

Experimental methods-
Ecological validity is a strength of which methods?

A

Field and natural

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26
Q

Experimental methods-
Ecological validity is a disadvantage of which methods?

A

Lab

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27
Q

Experimental math odd-
Which studies successfully allow the study of sensitive issues?

A

Natural

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28
Q

Experimental methods-
Which method means the random allocation of roles is not possible?

A

Quasi

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29
Q

Experimental methods-
In which method would it be difficult to find good samples?

A

Quasi

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30
Q

Experimental design-
What are the three different types?

A

Independent, repeated measures and matched pairs

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31
Q

Experimental design-
What is an independent design?

A

Different pps used in each condition

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32
Q

Experimental design-
What are the advantages of independent design?

A
  • no orders effects
  • less chance of demand characteristics
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33
Q

Experimental design-
What are some disadvantages of independent design?

A
  • more pps needed
  • individual differences
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34
Q

Experimental design-
What is repeated measures experimental design?

A

Same participants are used in each condition

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35
Q

Experimental design-
How do you counteract order effects in repeated measures design?

A

Counter balancing

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36
Q

Experimental design-
What are the advantages of repeated measures design?

A
  • no individual differences
  • fewer pps needed
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37
Q

Experimental design-
What are some limitations of repeated measures?

A
  • order effects may be present
  • if there is a gap between participants they may not return
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38
Q

Experimental design-
What is the matched pairs experimental design?

A

Different but similar pps, but the participants are matched on characteristics

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39
Q

Experimental design-
What are the advantages of matched pairs?

A
  • no order effects
  • individual effect are minimised
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40
Q

Experimental design-
What are the disadvantages of matched pairs?

A
  • matching is difficult and time consuming
  • twice as many people needed
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41
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a hypothesis?

A

A testable and predictive statement often generated from a theory

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42
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What are the types of hypothesis?

A

Directional, non-directional and null

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43
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a directional hypothesis (one tail)?

A

States the direction of the predicted difference

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44
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a non-directional hypothesis (two tail)?

A

Predicts a difference but not a direction

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45
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a null hypothesis?

A

There is no difference between the conditions

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46
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a confounding variable?

A

Variables other than the IV that have effected the DV

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47
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is extraneous variables?

A

Variables other than the IV that could have effected the DV

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48
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a participant variable?

A

Anything to do with the people used in the study, which could affect the DV

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49
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What is a situational variable?

A

Anything to do with the environment that the study is conducted in

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50
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What does standardise mean?

A

Keep everything the same for every participant

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51
Q

Hypothesis and variables-
What are standardised instructions?

A

Set instructions for all participants

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52
Q

hypothesis and variables-
What are standardised procedures?

A

Detailed instructions on how research should be carried out

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53
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the five types of sampling?

A

Random, opportunity, volunteer , systematic and stratified

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54
Q

Participant sampling-
What is random sampling?

A

Everyone in the target population has equal chance of being chosen

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55
Q

Participant sampling-
What is opportunity sampling?

A

Select anyone who is convenient at the time of the study

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56
Q

Participant sampling-
What is volunteer sampling?

A

Advertising for participants and participants volunteer

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57
Q

Participant sampling-
What is systematic sampling?

A

A sampling frame is produced and every nth person is chosen

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58
Q

Participant sampling-
What is stratified sampling?

A

Possible participants are put into categories, the final sample represents a percentage of each category

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59
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the advantages of random sampling?

A
  • unbiased
  • can be generalised
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60
Q

Participant sampling-
What are disadvantages of random sampling?

A
  • selected pps may not take part
  • difficult to get population details
  • not guaranteed a representative sample
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61
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • more convenient
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62
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • likely to be biased
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63
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the advantages of volunteer sampling?

A
  • practical
  • easy
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64
Q

Participant sampling-
What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A
  • lack of generalisability
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65
Q

Participant sampling-
What is an advantage of systematic sampling?

A
  • unbiased
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66
Q

Participant sampling -
What are some disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A
  • difficult to gather names
  • every nth person could be one gender
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67
Q

Types of data-
What is qualitative data?

A

Represented in non-numerical forms (worded)

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68
Q

Types of data-
What is quantitative data?

A

Data represented in numerical form (numbers)

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69
Q

Types of data-
What are some advantages of quantitive data?

A
  • easier to analyse
  • more scientific and objective
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70
Q

Types of data-
What is a disadvantage of quantitive data?

A
  • does not offer an in depth picture for researchers
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71
Q

Types of data-
What is an advantage of qualitative data?

A
  • offers in depth picture to researchers
  • tells us why a behaviour occurs
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72
Q

Types of data-
What are some disadvantages of qualitative data?

A
  • less scientific and more objective
  • harder to analyse and cannot be easily represented
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73
Q

Types of data-
What is primary data?

A

researchers collect their own data

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74
Q

Types of data-
What is secondary data?

A

Researchers analyse someone else’s data

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75
Q

Types of data-
What is meta data?

A

A type of secondary data analysis which includes drawing conclusions from several studies with the same aim

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76
Q

Types of data-
What are some advantages of primary data?

A
  • can ensure all data is relevant to the aim
  • researcher is aware of all potential issues
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77
Q

Types of data-
What are some disadvantages of primary data?

A
  • time consuming and expensive
  • (likely) a smaller sample so samples may not be representative
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78
Q

Types of data-
What are some advantages of secondary data?

A
  • quicker and cheaper
  • more representative
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79
Q

types of data-
What are some disadvantages of secondary data?

A
  • not all data may be relevant
  • researcher isn’t sure of any potential issues
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80
Q

Observations-
What are the two types of locations?

A

Naturalistic and controlled

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81
Q

Observations-
What does naturalistic mean?

A

In a pps natural environment

82
Q

Observations-
What does it mean by controlled environment?

A

Controlled area chosen by the researcher

83
Q

Observations-
What are the two possible roles of the researcher?

A
  • participant
  • non-participant
84
Q

Observations-
What does it mean by the researcher being a participant?

A

Researcher joins with the activities being carried out

85
Q

Observations-
What does it mean when the researcher is a non-participant?

A

Researcher is not directly involved in the experiment

86
Q

Observations-
What are the two types of identity that the reasearch ear can have?

A

Covert and overt

87
Q

Observations-
What does covert mean?

A

Under cover

88
Q

Observation-
What does overt mean?

A

Participants know they are being watched

89
Q

Observations-
What are the two ways that data can be recorded?

A

Structured and unstructured

90
Q

Observations-
What does it mean by the researcher recording data in a structured way?

A

With a tally sheet

91
Q

Observations-
What does it mean by the reader her recording data in an unstructured way?

A

Notes are made

92
Q

Observations-
What is event sampling?

A

only records specific events of interest

93
Q

Observations-
What is time sampling?

A

Observing and recording data at certain points

94
Q

Observations-
What is an issue with observations?

A

Different observers may observe different things

95
Q

Observations-
How is the reliability of observers assessed?

A

Inter-observer/inter-rater reliability

96
Q

Ethics-
What are ethical issues?

A

Conflict between the needs of the researcher and the ethical rights if the pps

97
Q

Ethics-
What are the four ethical guidelines?

A
  • respect
  • integrity
  • social responsibility
  • maximise benefit, minimise harm
98
Q

Ethics-
What is meant by respect?

A

Show respect to pps as valuable people with valuable knowledge, showing respect for their culture and beliefs

99
Q

Ethics-
What is meant by integrity?

A

Researchers should demonstrate scientific integrity, researchers must ensure this research is correct

100
Q

Ethics-
What is social responsibility?

A

Researchers must remember that their main aim is to understand human nature

101
Q

Ethics-
What is meant by maximise benefit minimise harm?

A

Psychologist should aim to ensure that any potential harm to their pps is not greater than the harm faced in everyday life , the study should be stopped if a participant shows distress

102
Q

Ethics-
How do you deal with ethical issues?

A
  • informed consent (form)
  • no deception
  • protection from harm
  • confidentiality
  • privacy
  • right to withdraw
103
Q

Ethics-
What is presumptive consent?

A

Asking a sample of the target population if they would take part

104
Q

Ethics-
What is prior-general consent?

A

Asking pps a period of time before the experiment

105
Q

Ethics-
What is in a debrief?

A
  • aims
  • hypothesis
  • description of past research
  • why each task was included
  • how the participants performed
  • offers of concealing
  • opportunity to ask questions
106
Q

Ethics-
How are demand characteristics dealt with?

A

Single-blind trial, participants don’t know the aim of the study

107
Q

Ethics-
What are investigator effects?

A

The physical characteristics and personality of the researcher affect how the pps open up

108
Q

Ethics-
How do we deal with investigator effects?

A

Double-blind trial, experimenter and pps dint know the aim of the study

109
Q

Reliability-
What is realisability?

A

A measure of whether or not something stays the same

110
Q

Reliability-
What is internal reliability?

A

Whether or not a study is consistent within itself

111
Q

Reliability-
How can internal realiablity be assessed?

A

Split-half method (compare a participants first half of the test with the second half)

112
Q

Reliability-
What is external reliability?

A

Results are consistently found when the study is repeated

113
Q

Reliability-
How can external reliability be assessed?

A

Repeating the test over and over again

114
Q

Reliability-
What is inter-observer reliability?

A

The consistency between different researchers

115
Q

Reliability-
How can you assess the. Inter-observer reliability?

A

Researchers observing the same situation and using the same method to collect the data

116
Q

Validity-
What is validity?

A

Whether a researcher is measuring what they set out to measure

117
Q

Validity-
What is internal validity?

A

Concerns the research setting, it is the researcher measuring what they were trying to measure

118
Q

Validity- experiments-
Hoe can internal validity be affected in experiments?

A

If there are demand characteristics or extraneous variables they may not measure what they want to measure

119
Q

Validity- questionaries/interviews
How can internal validity be affected in Q/I?

A

Questions are not valid if they help the interview

120
Q

Validity- observations-
How is internal validity affected in observations?

A

Lacks validity if the behaviours they want are not observed

121
Q

Validity-
What is ecological validity?

A

the extent to which the research settings represent the real life settings which the researcher claims to investigate

122
Q

Validity-
What is population validity?

A

The extent to which the research applies to people outside of the participant sample

123
Q

Validity-
What is temporal validity?

A

The extent to which findings apply to other time periods

124
Q

Validity-
What is face validity?

A

Taking something at face value

125
Q

Validity-
What is content validity?

A

When an expert checks it over

126
Q

Validity-
What is construct validity?

A

It is actual research about the construct as a whole

127
Q

Validity-
What is predictive validity?

A

Score predicts alter behaviour

128
Q

Validity-
What is concurrent validity?

A

Comparing new test hypothesis and old established hypothesis

129
Q

Pilot studies-
What is a pilot study?

A

A smaller scale trial version of suggested studies to see their effectiveness and how to make improvements

130
Q

Pilot studies-
What does a pilot study test?

A

Effectiveness and validity

131
Q

Self report technique-
Is self-report techniques an experimental method? What is it?

A

No, a method where pps provide their own information and data, without interference

132
Q

Self report techniques-
What are the three ways to distribute?

A

Postal
Internet
Hand out

133
Q

Self report techniques-
What five features should a questionaries have?

A
  • small number of questions
  • carefully ordered
  • Avoid jargon
  • avoid leading questions
  • open and closed questions
134
Q

Self report technique-
What type of questions does quantitive data use?

A

Closed questions (limited number if ways that the question can be answered, usually tick box)

135
Q

Self report technique-
What kind of questions does qualitative dara use?

A

Open questions (requires sentences for their answers, no two responses are the same. )

136
Q

Self report techniques- evaluation- questionaries-
What are the strengths?

A
  • large amount if data collected quickly
  • convenient, as researcher does not ahve to be present
137
Q

Self report techniques- evaluation- questionaries-
What are the limitations?

A
  • social desirability bias is a problem
  • pps may misread or misinterpret a question
138
Q

Self report techniques- interviews
What are the three types of interviews?

A
  • structured= a set list of questions tan cannot be deviated from
  • unstructured= more like a conversation
  • semi-structured= set list of flexible questions
139
Q

Self report techniques- evaluation- interviews-
What are the strengths?

A
  • flexible
  • can encourage honesty
140
Q

Self report techniques- evaluation- interviews-
What are the limitations?

A
  • time consuming
  • investigator effects
141
Q

Correlation-
What is correlation?

A

The relationship between two variables

142
Q

Correlation-
How is correlation test carried out?

A
  • two sets of data is taken from each participant and recorded
  • data is plotted on a scatter diagram
  • the correlation co-efficient is carried out
143
Q

Correlation-
What is positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases so does the other

144
Q

Correlation-
What is no correlation?

A

There appears to be no relationship between the variables

145
Q

Correlation-
What is negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other decreases

146
Q

Descriptive statistics- measures if dispersion-
What are the positives of using range?

A
  • quick and easy to work out
  • takes into account the spread of data
147
Q

Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion-
What are the negatives of range?

A
  • can be affected by extreme scores
  • doesn’t take the full data set into account
148
Q

Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion-
What are the positives of standard deviation?

A
  • more sensitive than range as all vales are used
  • more precise
149
Q

Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion-
What are the negatives of standard deviation?

A
  • complicated to calculate
  • less meaningful if the data isn’t normally distabuted
150
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What does a high standard deviation mean?

A

Less consistent

151
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What does a low standard deviation mean?

A

More consistent

152
Q

Descriptive statistics- bar charts-
What kind of data does a bar charts show?

A

Nominal (categories)

153
Q

descriptive statistics- bar chart-
Why dint the bars touch?

A

Because categories are unrelated

154
Q

descriptive statistics- histograms-
What kind of data is a histogram used for?

A

Interval data

155
Q

Descriptive statistics- histograms-
Do the bars touch?

A

Yes, because data is related (it is continuous)

156
Q

Descriptive statistics- frequency polygons-
When do we use frequency polygons?

A

Used when data is interval data, but you want to represent separate pieces if data on the same scale

157
Q

Descriptive statistics- frequency polygons-
Where do you plot the dot?

A

In the midpoint of where you would plot the bar

158
Q

Descriptive statistics- sign test-
What are the must haves?

A
  • looked for a difference between conditions
  • repeated measures or matched pairs
  • data is nominal
159
Q

Descriptive statistics- sign test-
What are the steps?

A
  1. Record data
  2. Work out the differences between scores
  3. Record if each difference is positive or negative
  4. The calculated value (s) is the value of how many of the lesser sign are counted
160
Q

Descriptive statistics- sign test-
When are the results not significant?

A

CALCULATED VALUE > critical value

161
Q

Descriptive statistics- sign test-
When is the answer significant?

A

Calculated value < CRITICAL VALUE

162
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What is the neurotic?

A

Carrots Should Come mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes

163
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What is the order of experimental designs along to top of the table?

A

Independent groups, repeated measures/ matched pairs, association/ correlation

164
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What is the order of data types down teh side of the table?

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval

165
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘Carrots’ stand for?

A

Chi Squared

166
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘should’ stand for?

A

Sign test

167
Q

Descriptive statistics- test-
What odes ‘mashed’ stand for?

A

Mann Whitney

168
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘with’ stand for?

A

Wilcoxon

169
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘Swede’ stand for?

A

Spearman’s Rho

170
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘under’ stand fro?

A

Unrelated test

171
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘Roast’ stand for?

A

Related test

172
Q

Descriptive statistics- tests-
What does ‘potatoes’ stand for?

A

Petersons R

173
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What is nominal data?

A

Data can be separated int discrete categories
E.g. eye colour

174
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What is ordinal data?

A

Ranked data
E.g. position in a race

175
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What is interval data?

A

Data is on a standardised scale, so difference at each point is standardised
E.g. temperature

176
Q

Descriptive statistics- levels of significance-
What does a 0.1 level of significance mean?

A

10% possibility that the results are due to chance
90% confidence level

177
Q

Descriptive statistics- levels of significance-
What does a 0.05 level of significance mean?

A

5% chance the results are due to chance
95% confidence level

178
Q

Descriptive statistics- level of significance-
What does a 0.01 level of significance mean?

A

1% chance that the results are due to chance
99% confidence level

179
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What is a type 1 error?

A

Accepting the experimental hypothesis when it is not actually true
(More likely with a significance level of 0.1)

180
Q

Descriptive statistics-
What is a typo 2 error?

A

Rejecting the experimental hypothesis when it is actually true
(More likely when the significance level os 0.01)

181
Q

Descriptive statistics- qualitative data analysis-
What is content analysis?

A

Analyses data into themes or categories and identifying how common each theme is

182
Q

Descriptive statistics- qualitative analysis-
What is thematic analysis?

A

Some researchers are unhappy with qualitative data to quantitive data conversion, so we use thematic analysis instead

183
Q

Descriptive statistics- content analysis-
What are the steps to content analysis?

A
  1. The material you decide to analysis must be representative of the qualitative data as a whole
  2. Decide on categories or themes
  3. Put these themes into a tally chart and mark every time you see a particulate theme present
  4. Add up how many times you see each theme and draw conditions based on this
184
Q

Economy-
how has minority rights had an effect on the economy?

A

Suffragettes and suffragists
- p= more Jobs, more tax, better for the economy
- n= costed £2 million in work absences

185
Q

Economy- attachment-
How has attachment studies affected the economy?

A

Role of the fathers-
- loss for the economy, more paid leave

186
Q

Economy- psychopathology-
How has research into psychopathology affected the economy?

A

Medication
- Costs he NHS money in the short term
- long term, better medication can be prescribed increasing the amount of time that people work, as their mental health will be better

187
Q

Peer review-
What is peer review?

A

Specialists in areas specific to the journal will review new research before it is published

188
Q

Peer review-
What is the process of peer review?

A

Psychologists, in a similar field, will read a report and decide if it should be published.

189
Q

Peer review-
What are the things considered when reading a report?

A

Validity
Significance
Originality
How appropriate the method is and designs are

190
Q

Peer review-
What is the purpose of peer review?

A

To ensure quality, relevance, accuracy and how good the design is

191
Q

Peer review- evaluation-
What are the strengths of peer review?

A
  • makes a piece of research more valid
  • makes sure research is accurate
  • acts as a quality check, so info can be trusted
192
Q

Peer review- evaluation-
What are the limitations of peer review?

A
  • reviewer might be biased
  • hard to find experts
  • slow, expensive and subjective and also difficult to detect fraud.
  • researchers may not attempt to publish in a ‘lesser’ journal
193
Q

Case studies-
What is a longitudinal case study?

A

Follows a person throughout their whole life

194
Q

Case studies-
What is a retrospective case study?

A

Asking people to recall events from their life

195
Q

Case studies-
What are case studies?

A
  • a non-experimental method
  • uses in one off or unusual cases
  • uses qualitative data and focuses in behaviour
196
Q

Case studies-
Do they have high or low ecological validity?

A

High

197
Q

Case studies-
Do they have high or low generalisability?

A

Low

198
Q

Case studies-
Do they have high or low replicability?

A

Low

199
Q

Case studies- evaluation-
What are the strength s of case studies?

A
  • provides rich qualitative data (gives us real insight into human behaviour)
  • high ecological validity
200
Q

Case studies- evaluation-
What are limitations of case studies?

A
  • low generalisability
  • low replicability

Psychology: Paper 2 (3 decks)

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