Research designs WK3

Question 1

What are the types of quantitative research designs

Answer 1

correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental

Question 2

What are the types of qualitative research designs

Answer 2

thematic analysis, content analysis, grounded theory, phenomenology, discourse analysis

Question 3

Describe correlational research. What are some advantages/disadvantages

Answer 3

-No group assignment /manipulation
-independent and dependent often measured at same time
-Only strength of relationship can be determined (potential causal direction ambiguous)
E.g. Alcohol use and depression (causal direction unclear)

Advantages:
-Simplest to set up-no manipulation required (may be more pragmatic/ethical)
-Can be more ecologically valid than experimental studies in a lab (translate better to real world)

Disadvantages:
-Causal direction undetermined (only shows association, confident conclusion not drawn)
.Correlation does not imply causation
-Cannot easily rule out other explanations for association

Question 4

Describe quasi-experimental research providing some advantages and disadvantages

Answer 4

-Group assignment but no manipulation
-Group assignment typically based upon pre-existing characteristic /deposition (cannot be randomly decided/manipulated e.g. Gender)
-Sometimes control groups created by self-selection criteria e.g. Non-smokers (researcher does not determine this)
E.g. Uni vs non-uni students and depression

Advantages
-Simple to set up
-Allows conduct of research where true experimental designs not logical, practical, ethical

Disadvantages
- Causal direction can’t be determined (Confident conclusions not drawn)
-Cannot easily rule other explanations

Question 5

Describe experimental research

Answer 5

Random condition assignment and a manipulation
-in designs with more than one group of participants
-should be done at random (by chance)-Equal likelihood of assignment to manipulations or control condition

Question 6

Describe the use of controlled conditions

Answer 6

-Provides suitable comparison to determine whether manipulation has yielded a true effect
-One group participants-baseline measurement used as control instead

Question 7

What is causation. What criteria must be met prior to causation?

Answer 7

(experimental designs) explains behaviour by uncovering causal relationship between variable
-three criteria met;
.Co-variation: variable must change together (correlated)
.Temporal ordering: cause must precede effect
.No rival explanations: alternate explanations must be ruled out as possible causes of effect

Question 8

What is random assignment

Answer 8

Equal chance of being in either condition (only in experimental designs)
-no systematic differences between conditions
-If DV changes in condition 1, then confident it is due to IV (manipulation)

Question 9

What is non-random assignment

Answer 9

Cannot be equal chance of being in either condition
-causes condition which may have multiple systematic differences
-If DV different between groups cant be confident that was due to difference in IV (might be other systematic difference)
-Casual conclusion can’t be drawn as are many systematic differences

Question 10

What are some advantages and disadvantages of experimental research (draw table with one-note)

Answer 10

Advantages
Can make casual conclusions
-mindful of external validity
-found evidence of causal effect in participants doesn’t prove

Control groups/random allocation help rule out alternative explanations

Advance knowledge more quickly
-Temporal direction of associations clearer
-More publishable

Disadvantages
Costly and time consuming
Venues, equipment needed to perform manipulation effectively
Lower sample sizes as result

Manipulations and control groups are associated with ethical challenges (i.e. Some manipulations not ethical)

Question 11

Describe qualitative research

Answer 11

-Exploratory
-Prioritises descriptive accounts of phenomena
-Relies on variety of data collection methods E.g. Interviews, visual data, analysing written text (media)
-Often employs inductive approach (Theories/concepts emerge from data)
-Flexible and iterative
(Researchers can adapt approach based on emerging insights/new questions arising, Can revise method, refine research questions)
-Pays close attention to social, cultural and historical context in which phenomena occur
(Seek to understand context)

Question 12

What are advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research

Answer 12

Advantages
-Elicits participants own categories of meaning
-May develop new theories
-Challenge status quo/identify new direction of inquiry

Disadvantages
-Longer time for data collection/analysis compared to quantitative
-Careful to manage researcher subjectivity/bias
-Cannot account for cause/effect
-may be less credible by administrators/funding bodies

Question 13

Draw tables for main qualitative research designs

Answer 13

Thematic analysis

Content analysis

Grounded theory

Phenomenology

Discourse analysis

Question 14

Define thematic analysis and it’s 2 types

Answer 14

Organising textual data into patterns meaningful to aims underpinning research
-Recurring concepts identifiable using codes for similar ideas
-Active process (researcher shapes themes identified)
-Themes capture explicit information within data

Inductive (i.e. Theme are developed from data)
Deductive (i.e. Themes identified based on theory)

Question 15

Define content analysis and it’s 4 types

Answer 15

Describing phenomena through application of systematic coding processes
-Flexible (used with an array of data sources e.g. Textual, visual)

Summative-coding/counting key words to quantitatively summarise important patterns with data

Conventional-coding in order to describe/interpret patterns emerging from data, generates new understanding of phenomena

Directed-use codes derived from theory. Identify patterns within data extending theory

Mixed-combined approach allowing quantification of codes within data

Question 16

Define grounded theory and it’s types

Answer 16

Used to develop theory grounded in data collected
-Theoretical sampling used to guide data collection
-Analysis of data based on constant comparison combined with memo writing
-Data collection ceases when theoretical saturation reached

-Systematic, emergent, constructive

Question 17

Define phenomenology and its types

Answer 17

Aims to capture rich descriptions of lived experience
-Use bracketing of researchers preconception to focus on life of individual

-Descriptive, hermeneutic, interpretative

Question 18

Define discourse analysis and it’s types

Answer 18

Focus on how particular words used create particular meaning and consequences
-Conversations, interviews, articles, etc subjected to discourse analysis

-Foucauldian discursive psychology

Question 19

Draw table of quality assurance procedures in qualitative research

Answer 19

Researcher reflexivity: reflect on own bias/perspectives influencing research process/findings and implement techniques to mitigate/manage impact
-Enhances transparency of study

Audit trials: researchers should maintain detailed audit trails
-Facilitates transparency /accountability as allows other researchers to trace steps taken

Methodological transparency: provide detailed descriptions of research methods, procedures, analysis techniques used in study
-Evaluate credibility of findings, replicate study

Member checking: seek feedback from participants to verify accuracy/credibility of findings

Peer debriefing/triangulation: seek input and feedback from peers knowledgeable about qualitative research methods
-Regular discussion, peer reviews, cross-coding

Data saturation: point at which no new information/themes emerge from data, indicate theoretical saturation reached
-Enhances credibility and depth of findings

Question 20

Draw table of major mixed methods research designs with explanations

Answer 20

Convergent parallel design: researcher collects quantitative and qualitative data, analyses two data sets separately, and merges results

Embedded design: researcher collects and analyses quantitative and qualitative data within a quantitative, qualitative design, or research procedure
-collection/analysis of secondary data set can occur before, during, and/or primary methods

Explanatory sequential design: researcher collects and analyses quantitative data, then qualitative in second phase before connecting using the quantitative results to shape the qualitative research questions, sampling, and data collection

Exploratory sequential design: collects and analyses qualitative data then quantitative in second phase, then connects phases by using qualitative results to shape quant phase by specifying research questions, developing instrument, and/or generating typology

Multiphase design: researcher examines overall objective and implements iteration of connected quantitative and/or qualitative studies
-builds new study on what was learned previously

Question 21

Provide disadvantages and advantages of mixed methods research designs

Answer 21

Advantages
-Allows researcher to gain comprehensive understanding of research problem (combines strengths of both qualit./quant methods)
-Strengthens the confidence in findings (triangulation)

Disadvantages
-Typically requires more time, resources, expertise compared to studies employed in other
-Collecting/interpreting data from multiple sources can be labour-intensive and costly
-Quite difficult to converge two sets of different data

Question 22

Draw table defining the main sampling methods and with research method uses

Answer 22

Convenience (most common)
-Volunteers in near vicinity
-Offer poor generalisation to wider population e.g. External validity
-Used in all research methods

Purposive
-Participants selected on basis of characteristic of population they belong to/objectives of study
-deliberately chosen to represent population of interest (e.g. Depressed individuals)
-Only generalised/transferred to similar populations
-Used in all research methods

Random selection
-Each individual in population equal chance of being selected to participate
-Best opportunity to generalise to wider population
-Quantitative research mainly

Stratified
-Proportions reflecting population of interest E.g. Pop of interest there are 60% men 40% women, researcher ensures sample has similar proportions of men and women
-Used quantitative research mainly

Theoretical
-participants are selected on basis of whether or not they contribute to theory development

Question 23

Differ between within participants design and between participants design

Answer 23

Between-participants design
Two or more groups or conditions made-up of different individuals
-Quasi-experimental usually (e.g. Comparing scores across gender)
-Experimental designs either between or within

Within participants design
Two or more conditions made up of same individuals
-repeated-measures design (comparing depression before/after treatment)
-usually experimental (often manipulation occurring between each repeated measurement)

Question 24

Provide advantages and disadvantages of between/within participants designs (make table)

Answer 24

Between (advantage and dis)
-can prevent carry-over effects (i.e., when participation in one condition can affect the other
- introduce increased (extraneous) variability between conditions (i.e., make it harder to detect actual differences
-random variability can introduce differences to measurement of DV

Within
-can reduce (extraneous) variability
between conditions (i.e., can make easier to detect actual differences
-random variability less likely to introduce differences to measurement of DV
- Lower sample sizes needed
Disadvantages
* In experimental designs can lead to carry-over effects (i.e., when participation in one condition can affect the othe

Question 25

Describe cross sectional design providing advantages and disadvantages

Answer 25

Data measured at one point in time
May be form of between-participants design
E.g. Difference across individuals in developmental areas (language), psychological (intelligence), epidemiological (health, disease)

Advantages
-Collect data from different groups at same time
-Cheaper/quicker than longitudinal
-Tolerance to attrition

Disadvantages
-Non-equivalent groups
-Cohort effects (differences in generational experiences)

Question 26

Describe longitudinal designs

Answer 26

Collecting data over a long period of time
-Form of repeated measures (within-participants)
-same individuals across portion of lifespan
-Well suited to track slow changes in factors
-Possible to make causal conclusions

Advantages
-Lower extraneous variance-more sensitive for finding effects
-Establish cause and effect (comorbidity-what occurred first?)

Disadvantages
-Vulnerable to attrition (which can bias findings)
-Expensive, time-consuming, often impractical

Question 27

Define field studies

Answer 27

-intentionally abandon attempts at control
-Data collected in real world environments
-Unpredictable

Question 28

Define case studies

Answer 28

Single individual studied in detail
-utilised in situations where population of interest unique/rare
-Findings can’t always bev generalised far (e.g.,only to those with similar impairments)

Question 29

What are some common issues in quantitative research (draw table)

Answer 29

-Researcher control
Comparison/control groups
-Practice and order effects
-Participant preconceptions and expectations
-Attrition: When participants drop out during a study
-Self-report

Question 30

What are some common issues in qualitative research

Answer 30

-Education in qualitative research methods recent, relatively limited
-Sample size
-Perspective management in data collection and analysis (influence
-Common issues with interview studies, Interview questions, Inappropriately timed, location, Interviewer/Participant behaviours, Recording or other technological issues
-Adequate data
-Issues when analysing the data

Question 31

What is meant meta-analytic thinking. What is meta analysis

Answer 31

-opposite of the single study mind set
-broader study, take in larger body’s of research
-metanalysis: quantitative analysis to see if treatment has effect