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S3- Research II > Research 2 Final > Flashcards

Research 2 Final Flashcards

1
Q

WEEK 1

A

WEEK 1

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2
Q

_______ research is an applied research conducted on human subjects focused on testing theories to help find better ways to detect, diagnose, treat, and prevent disease or develop therapies.

A

Clinical

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3
Q

What are the 5 steps of the clinical research process?

A
  1. ) Research question formulation
  2. ) Study design
  3. ) Study implementation
  4. ) Data analysis
  5. ) Disseminate findings
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4
Q

What are the 3 types of clinical research and what are they used for?

A
  1. ) Descriptive - Describe Populations
  2. ) Exploratory - Find Relationships
  3. ) Explanatory - Cause and Effect
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5
Q

What are 2 types of Descriptive clinical research?

A
  • Case report studies

- Descriptive studies

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6
Q

What are 2 types of Exploratory clinical research?

A
  • Cohort studies

- Case-control studies

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7
Q

What is a type of Explanatory clinical research?

A

-RCT

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8
Q

Data levels of measurement are majorly __________ or _________.

A

continuous or categorical

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9
Q

Data can be distributed __________ or ________ to the right/left.

A

normally or skewed right/left

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10
Q

Continuous data are described using the _____;______ and the _________;____ graph.

A
  • mean; SD

- histogram; line graph

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11
Q

Categorical data are described using the _________;________ and the _____;_____ graph.

A
  • frequency; proportion

- pie chart; bar graph

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12
Q

_____________ is performed to make inference about the population group based on the sample group and its result produces _________ that is useful for interpretation.

A
  • Statistical Hypothesis Testing

- p-value

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13
Q

In SHT what is;

  • Type I Error?
  • Type II Error?
  • Power?
A
  • Type I Error = probability of falsely rejecting the null hypothesis (false positive)
  • Type II Error = probability of falsely retaining the null hypothesis (false negative)
  • Power = the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis
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14
Q

______________ is constructed around a statistic to make inference about the population group based on the sample group. For interpretation it is checked if it contains a null value of 0 for mean difference and 1 for ratio.

A

Confidence Interval (CI)

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15
Q
  • _____________ is an appropriate SHT for the two independent groups comparison of the mean.
  • ______ is an appropriate SHT for the multiple independent groups comparison of the means.
  • _____________ is an appropriate SHT for any number of groups comparison of the proportions/ratio.
A
  • students t-test
  • ANOVA
  • Chi-square
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16
Q

WEEK 2

A

WEEK 2

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17
Q
  • ________ is one of the most popular methods for collecting descriptive or subjective data.
  • __________ is a structured survey, self-administered, using pen / paper or electronic formats.
A
  • Survey

- Questionnaire

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18
Q
  • For a survey questionnaire, _____-______ questions are useful for asking subjective opinions.
  • For a survey questionnaire, ____-______ questions are useful for easy coding and these must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive
A
  • open-ended

- close-ended

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19
Q
  • _______ _________ is a research design that uses explicit methods to identify, select, appraise and synthesize results from similar but separate studies.
  • ______-_______ is a statistical method of combining a large collection of results from individual studies.
A
  • Systematic review

- Meta-analysis

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20
Q

_____________ presents meta-analysis results.

A

Forests plot

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21
Q

_________________ is the place to find independent, high quality evidence of systematic review.

A

Cochrane library

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22
Q

WEEK 3

A

WEEK 3

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23
Q

Are most measurements directly observable?

A

No, named indirect nature of measurement.

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24
Q

Measure for a research study can be appropriately selected by considering what psychometric properties?

A
  • Reliability
  • Validity
  • Scale of Measurement
  • Self report vs performance based measure
  • MDC
  • Clinical utility of the measures
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25
Q
  • _________ is consistency time after time, with as little variation as possible.
  • ________ is accuracy that a test is measuring what it is intended to measure.
A
  • Reliability

- Validity

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26
Q

What are the types of reliability?

A
  • Test-retest
  • Intrarater
  • Interrater
  • Internal Consistency
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27
Q

What are the types of validity?

A
  • Face
  • Content
  • Construct
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28
Q

-Reliability can be estimated using ___________ ___________ for two continuous measurements and __________________ for two categorical measurements

A
  • correlation coeffecient (r)

- Cohen’s kappa (k)

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29
Q

Internal consistency reliability can be estimated using _____________.

A

Cronbach’s alpha

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30
Q

Construct validity can be estimated using ___________, __________________, and _________________.

A
  • correlation
  • confirmatory factor analysis
  • cluster analysis
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31
Q

WEEK 4

A

WEEK 4

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32
Q

Data level of measurement can be either ____________ or _____________.

A

continuous or categorical

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33
Q
  • For continuous data, its distribution can be visualized by drawing a _________ to check whether the data are distributed to be symmetric or skewed.
  • For continuous data whose distribution is symmetric, ______ and ____________ are common to report.
  • For continuous data whose distribution is skewed, _______ and ____________ are common to report.
A
  • histogram
  • mean and SD
  • median and IQR
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34
Q

For categorical data, ______ and _______ are common to report to describe it.

A

-count and percent

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35
Q

To visualize the distribution of continuous data, _____ may also be drawn as well as __________.

A
  • boxplot

- histogram

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36
Q

To visualize the distribution of a categorical data, _______ or ________ may be drawn.

A

-pie graph or bar graph

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37
Q

____________ research is conducted to provide an in-depth understanding of the study population.

A

Descriptive

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38
Q

Is descriptive or correlational research for making predictions?

A

correlational (exploratory and explanatory)

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39
Q

______________ study describes interesting, new and unique cases to build a foundation for clinical science.

A

Case report

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40
Q

_____________ provide an overall picture of the group’s characteristics using surveys as a source of data to collect information.

A

Descriptive surveys

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41
Q

___________ research involves the description of developmental change and the sequencing of behaviors in people over time.

A

Developmental

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42
Q

__________ studies describe typical or standard values for characteristics of a given population.

A

Normative

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43
Q

____________ research is to explore and understand human behavior that arises from a different philosophy than quantitative research designs.

A

Qualitative

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44
Q

WEEK 5

A

WEEK 5

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45
Q

___________ is the method used to find the causes of health outcomes and diseases in populations to identify those who have a specific disorder, when and where the disorder developed and what exposures are associated with its presence.

A

Epidemiology

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46
Q

____________ epidemiologic studies can be presented as case reports, correlational studies, or survey studies to study the disease frequency by reporting the ____________ or ____________.

A
  • Descriptive

- prevalence (P) or incidence (CI; IR)

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47
Q

Prevalence = ?

A

Prevalence = number of existing cases of a disease at a given point in time / total population at risk

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48
Q

Cumulative incidence (CI) = ?

A

number of new cases during given time period / total population at risk

49
Q

Incidence rate (IR) = ?

A

number of new cases during given time period / total person-time

50
Q

____________ epidemiologic studies can be presented as cohort studies or case-control study to estimate the risk of an exposure to the development of a disorder by reporting _____________ for cohort studies or ___________ for case-control studies.

A
  • Exploratory
  • relative risk (RR) for cohort studies
  • odds ratio (OR) for case-control studies
51
Q

What is used to determine risk?

A

2x2 contingency table

52
Q

____________ research is conducted to investigate the relationship between exposure and disease status.

A

Exploratory

53
Q

Exploratory research can be carries out ____________ or ______________. Describe each.

A
  • retrospectively- collects data in present and past

- prospectively- collects data in present and future

54
Q

What is the difference between cross-sectional study and longitudinal study?

A
  • Cross-sectional- collects data at one point in time

- Longitudinal- collects data in multiple points over time

55
Q

Which is usually done first, cross-sectional or longitudinal and why?

A

cross-sectional because it is cheap and easy to gather initial data and identify correlations

56
Q
  • Researcher in a ________ study selects a cohort who do not yet have the outcome of interest and follows them to see if they develop the disorder.
  • Researcher in a ____________ study looks backward in time to determine if the case- and the control- groups differ on their exposure histories.
A
  • cohort

- case-control

57
Q

WEEK 6

A

WEEK 6

58
Q

What is the purpose of using inferential statistics?

A

To make a decision about the population group based on the information of the sample group.

59
Q

______________ are the differences between the sample values and the population values.

A

Sampling errors

60
Q

Sample ______ together with its standard error can picture what the sampling distribution looks like and can provide an interval estimate for the population mean.

A

mean

61
Q

__________________ is performed to make a decision about the population by rejecting or retaining the null hypothesis based on the resulting quantity called p-value.

A

Statistical Hypothesis Testing (SHT)

62
Q

________ as a result of running a SHT is used to make a decision.

A

p-value

63
Q
  • Type 1 Error =

- Type 2 Error =

A
  • Type I = reject a true null (false positive)

- Type II = nonrejection of a false null (false negative)

64
Q
  • ______________ for the mean difference is checked for inclusion of its null value of __ for the significant effect.
  • _____________ interval for the ratio is checked for inclusion of its null value of 1 for the significant effect.
A
  • CI, 0

- CI, 1

65
Q

___________ research provides a structure for evaluating the cause-and-effect relationship between a set of independent and dependent variables.

A

Experimental

66
Q

In true experimental design, subjects are randomly assigned to at least ____ comparison groups.

A

2

67
Q

When a true experimental design is not feasible, ____________ design is useful lacking random assignment or comparison groups, or both.

A

-quasi experimental

68
Q
  • In ________-subjects design subjects are randomly assigned to independent groups.
  • In ________-subjects design subjects act as their own control.
A
  • between-subjects

- within-subjects

69
Q

By the number of independent variables, design can be _______-factor or ______-factor.

A

-single-factor or multi-factor

70
Q

When a pretest-posttest design is either impractical or potentially reactive, ________ only design is useful.

A

posttest only

71
Q

______________ design and _________ design are the types of within-subjects design.

A

Repeated measures design and crossover design

72
Q

_____ design is available when you have both the within-subjects factors and between-subjects factors.

A

Mixed

73
Q

WEEK 7

A

WEEK 7

74
Q

_______________ is a proper SHT for testing the mean difference between the two independent groups.

A

Students t-test

75
Q

______________ is a proper SHT for testing the mean differences between the two related groups.

A

Paired t-test

76
Q

______________ is an extension of a Student’s t-test for multiple groups.

A

ANOVA

77
Q

_________________ is an extension of a paired t-test for multiple points in time.

A

Repeated Measures ANOVA

78
Q

_________________ is applied when the mean differences were compared by multiple factors.

A

Factorial ANOVA

79
Q

_____________ is applied when the mean differences were compared by multiple factors over time.

A

Mixed ANOVA

80
Q

_________________ is applied when the mean differences were compared controlling for a confounding variable.

A

ANCOVA

81
Q

WEEK 8

A

WEEK 8

82
Q

_________ tests are available when data is ____________ and work on the principle of ranking the data.

A
  • non-parametric

- non-parametric

83
Q

For data to parametric, the data should be ___________ and checked for its _______ distribution and equal variances across the groups to compare.

A
  • continuous

- normal

84
Q

______________ alternative tests are available when the data violates any assumption to be parametric. Most non-parametric methods are based on the ranking scores procedure.

A

non-parametric

85
Q

_____________ test is a non-parametric alternative to Student’s t-test,

A

Mann-Whitney U

86
Q

______________ test is a non-parametric alternative to ANOVA.

A

Kruskal-Wallis H

87
Q

_________ signed-ranks test is a non-parametric alternative to paired t-test.

A

Wilcoxon

88
Q

_________ test is a non-parametric alternative to repeated measures ANOVA.

A

Friedman

89
Q

WEEK 9

A

WEEK 9

90
Q

__________ test is a proper test for testing the proportion between the two or more independent groups.

A

Chi-square

91
Q

What are the assumptions to check before running a chi-square test?

A
  • the 2 factors are independent
  • the value of the cell expected count should be 5 or more in 80% of the cells
  • no cell should have an expected count of less that 1
92
Q

_______ test s available when the factors are not independent.

A

McNemar

93
Q

____________ test is available when the data is sparse having cell expected count less than 5.

A

Fishers Exact

94
Q

For the data presented in a 2x2 contingency table, __________ can be computed for each case of chi-square test and McNemar test.

A

odds ratio (OR)

95
Q

WEEK 10

A

WEEK 10

96
Q

The association between two variables can be measured using ___________________.

A

correlation coefficients

97
Q

__________ correlation coefficient measures the linear correlation between two continuous variables X and Y.

A

Pearson

98
Q

____________ correlation coefficient is a non-parametric analog of the Pearson r and also appropriate for use when X and Y are ordinal variables.

A

Spearman rank

99
Q

_____________ correlation coefficient is appropriate for use when X is dichotomous and Y is continuous.

A

Point biserial

100
Q

_________ coefficient is appropriate for use when both X and Y are dichotomous variables.

A

Phi

101
Q

Correlation coefficient value r quantitatively describes the strength and direction of a relationship between ____ variables.

A

two

102
Q

The prediction of an outcome from a variable can be tested using _______________.

A

regression analysis

103
Q
  • Linear regression examines the causal relationship of X to Y when Y is ____________.
  • Logistic regression examines the causal relationship of X to Y when Y is ____________.
A
  • continuous

- dichotomous

104
Q

The __________________ quantitatively describes the percentage of the total variance in the Y scores that can be explained by the X scores.

A

coefficient of determination (R2)

105
Q

WEEK 11

A

WEEK 11

106
Q

______________ is a collective term for the methods of analysis for survival data as being used to analyze the time to an event data in the presence of censored observations.

A

Survival Analysis

107
Q

__________ observations are those who have not yet reached the terminal event by the end of the study so whose information about their survival time is incomplete.

A

Censored

108
Q

Standard comparison tests such as analysis of variance or regression methods cannot be used for survival analysis because survival times are typically not __________ distributed and come with the presence of ___________ observations.

A
  • normally

- censored

109
Q

__________ survival curve is widely used in clinical research to visualize the estimate of the survival over time.

A

Kaplan-Meier

110
Q

_________ test is appropriately used to compare two or more independent groups with the time to an event data.

A

Log-rank

111
Q

___________ hazard model is appropriately used to compare two or more independent groups for the time to an event data controlling for a confounding variable and it also estimates a HR with its 95% confidence interval.

A

Cox proportional

112
Q

WEEK 12

A

WEEK 12

113
Q

The application of ______________ involves grouping similar variables into factors.

A

factor analysis

114
Q

___________________ is used to explore the possible underlying factor structure of a set of observed variables without imposing a predefined structure of the outcome.

A

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

115
Q

______________________ is used to test the hypothesis that there exists a relationship between the observed variables and their underlying latent constructs.

A

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

116
Q

What are the steps on an exploratory factor analysis?

A
  • developing factors
  • extracting factors
  • rotating factors
  • naming factors
117
Q

_________ of factor analysis stem from its subjectivity and judgmental nature in decisions; specifically, factors are not real measurement entities only being hypothetical statistical concepts; the resulting data structure is subject to different selection of extraction or rotation methods; the generated factors may be totally uninterpretable within the framework of the research question.

A

Limitations

118
Q

WEEK 13

A

WEEK 13

119
Q

The application of cluster analysis involves grouping similar cases into homogenous groups (called clusters) when the grouping is not previously known
With hierarchical clustering, the clustering is mapped into a hierarchy basing its grouping on the inter-cluster similarities or dissimilarities
With k-mean clustering, data is classified into K number of clusters mapping each individual data into the cluster with its nearest mean
With two-step clustering, a sequential approach is first used to pre-cluster the cases, and second the pre-clusters are statistically merged into the desired number of clusters
Two step clustering may be a better choice over hierarchical or k-mean because the two step clustering can work with categorical data and it is not bound to an arbitrary choice of the number of clusters

A

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S3- Research II (14 decks)

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