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Reptile normal structure and function Flashcards

1
Q

What are basic features of reptiles?

A

Vertebrates
Heavily keratinised skin
Ectothermic
Internal fertilisation (most egg laying, few live bearing)
Nucleated red blood cells

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2
Q

Describe the thermoregulation of reptiles.

A

Reptiles are ectothermic.
Metabolism and physiological function is directly related to environment conditions.

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3
Q

What is a common issue in thermoregulation of reptiles and what can this lead to?

A

Chronic hypothermia. Leads to impaired metabolic function and immune suppression

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4
Q

What is the preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)?

A

Range which allows the reptile to achieve its preferred body temperature

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5
Q

What is the preferred body temperature (PBT)?

A

Optimum temperature for correct functioning of all body systems

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6
Q

How does the POTZ and PBT change in sick reptiles?

A

Sick reptiles will seek out higher temperatures (behavioural ‘fever’)

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7
Q

What is reptile thermoregulation controlled by?

A

Controlled by the hypothalamus.
Pre-optic nucleus
Receives information from central and peripheral thermoreceptors.

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8
Q

What is the appropriate behavioural mechanism implemented based on?

A

Temperature of blood

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9
Q

What are the two main mechanisms of acquiring heat and what is the difference between them?

A

Heliothermy - solar rays (sun)
Thigmothermy - acquisition of heat via conduction through direct contact with a warm substrate

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10
Q

What happens to the cardiovascular system at high temperatures?

A

HR and vasodilation increases which leads to warm blood to the periphery.

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11
Q

What happens to the cardiovascular system at low temperatures?

A

HR and vasodilation decreases which leads to warm blood being retained in the core.

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12
Q

What other mechanism can be implemented in reptiles to reduce heat loss?

A

Lungs can be bypassed y means of a (right to left) shunt, meaning reduced heat loss by evaporation.
Not breathing out hot air.

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13
Q

What behavioural changes can reptiles implement to affect thermoregulation?

A

Body position and shape
Burrowing/hiding/shade seeking
Pigmentation (darker when cooler to absorb more solar energy)

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14
Q

How does metabolism in reptiles differ to mammals of a similar size?

A

Metabolism is slower than in mammals of a similar size

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15
Q

Which factors will influence metabolic rate in reptiles?

A

Diet - plant eaters vs active hunters
Size - small vs large
Body temperature - cold vs warm
Species

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16
Q

What kind of metabolism of reptiles utilise?

A

Reptiles utilise mainly aerobic metabolism, but will switch to anaerobic metabolism for periods of intense activity.

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17
Q

What are the consequences of the switch from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism?

A

Increase lactic acid production.
Poorly dispersed in reptiles.
Excess lactate = drop in blood pH and decrease affinity for oxygen by haemoglobin.
Further increases meed for anaerobic metabolism.
Short bursts only

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18
Q

What are reptiles hugely dependent on for physiological functions?

A

Light

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19
Q

Which wavelengths of light are important for reptiles and what impact does each have on the health of the reptile?

A

UVA - 320-400 nm. Required for normal feeding behaviour, reproductive activity etc.
UVB - 290-320 nm. Requires for conversion of Vit D3 in skin.

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20
Q

What wavelengths of light does natural sunlight provide? What does this mean when in housing reptiles in captivity?

A

Natural sunlight provides optimum full spectrum, however it is difficult to achieve adequate exposure in most captive situations.

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21
Q

What are the general features of the skeleton of reptiles?

A

Flexible spine (not in Chelonia)
Number of vertebrae highly variable
Ribs well developed (except in Chelonia)
Movement of the head occurs mainly at occipital condyle (atlas and axis firmly attached)

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22
Q

Where is 99% of the bodies calcium stored in reptiles?

A

In the bones

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23
Q

What is the recommended dietary Ca:P ratio?

A

2:1
Dietary calcium to phosphate ratio important

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24
Q

When plasma calcium levels are insufficient to support neuromuscular activity what happens?

A

The parathyroid hormone acts to mobilise calcium from bony stores.

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25
What conditions can develop if calcium metabolism is altered or dietary supply is insufficient?
Metabolic bone disease Hypocalcaemia
26
Describe the skeletal growth of chelonians, snakes and crocodiles.
Just keep getting better. Epiphyseal growth plates don't close - no 'skeletal maturity' occurs
27
Describe the skeletal growth of lizards.
Have secondary centres of ossification. Reach skeletal maturity but at a much later date
28
What feature of the skeleton do reptiles lack that mammals have?
The Haversian bone system
29
Describe bone healing in reptiles.
Slow (2-18 months)
30
How do you encourage fracture repair in reptiles?
Correct nutritional deficiencies Choose method based on species/lifestyle/location of fracture
31
What are the two skull types seen in reptiles?
Diapsid - snakes/lizards/tuatara/crocodilia Anapsid - Chelonia
32
Describe an anapsid skull.
No temporal fenestrae
33
Describe a diapsid skull.
Supratemporal fenestra Subtemporal fenestra
34
What does a kinetic skull mean?
Mobile. Some species have modification to allow maximum gape. Moveable joints between upper and lower jaw.
35
Describe the general features of the integument of reptiles.
Largest organ in the body Waterproof - keratinised (evolutionary advantage) Skin is shed periodically to allow growth (patchy or all at once)
36
What are the three layers of integument in reptiles?
Stratum corneum (top) Intermediate layer Stratum germinative (stratum basale) (bottom)
37
What is ecdysis?
Shedding of old skin
38
What is ecdysis controlled by?
Thyroid gland
39
How does ecdysis vary between snakes and lizards?
Complete in snakes Patchy in lizards
40
What is an indication that a reptiles is about to shed?
The skin that covers the eye becomes cloudy.
41
What is dysecdysis and what can it be caused by?
Failure to shed Usually husbandry related - require humidity and shedding surface
42
Describe the red blood cells of reptiles.
Nucleated
43
What percentage of body weight is blood volume in reptiles?
8-10%
44
Where can you take a blood sample in reptiles?
Tail Abdominal vena cava
45
Describe the heart of reptiles.
Three chambers in most reptiles. Crocodiles have four chambers.
46
What is the 'one' ventricle in the heart subdivided by and into?
It is subdivided by muscular ridges. Into: Cavae arteriosum Cavae pulmonale Cavae venous
47
How is the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood kept to a minimum in reptilian hearts?
Through timing of contractions and division of chambers
48
What happens in the lungs during breath holding?
Pressure in the lungs increases
49
What does breath holding cause in the heart?
The majority of blood to bypass the pulmonary circulation i.e. a shunt of blood past pulmonary circulation. Both right to left (more common) and left to right shunts are possible. Blood enters aortic arches and bypasses the lungs.
50
What does breath holding have implications on?
Anaesthesia
51
What veins enter a large renal portal vein and what does this result in?
External iliac veins (carrying blood draining from hind limbs). Some blood returning from hindlimb enters kidney before returning to circulation.
52
What are the potential issues with the renal portal system and how much of an issue is it?
Used to worry far more but probably not as much of an issue as initially thought. Not ALL blood drains directly to the kidney. Hepatic portal system
53
Describe the larynx in reptiles.
Easily identifiable
54
What does the trachea lead to and how does this differ in snakes?
Leads to paired lungs. Except in snakes, where left lung often vestigial or absent
55
What structure do reptiles lack in the respiratory system?
Diaphragm
56
Describe the lungs of reptiles.
Lung is simple sac like structure - reticular pattern of ridges increases surface area for gas exchange.
57
How do reptiles breathe if there is no diaphragm?
Negative pressure created by intercostal muscle function (except chelonians who use changes in position of limbs, head and abdominal viscera)
58
What else does the respiratory system in reptiles also have a role in?
Buoyancy Vocalisation Display
59
What are the 3 phases to respiration in reptiles?
Expiration Inhalation Rest phase (can last long periods)
60
What is the controlling factor of respiration in reptiles?
Temperature Increased temperature increase oxygen demand and reduces pulmonary resistance.
61
Describe the oral cavity of reptiles.
Contains mucus secreting glands which moisten and lubricates food. In some species it is modified to venom glands
62
Describe the teeth of reptiles.
None in chelonians Present in lizards and snakes - loose attachment as don't really tear things up just swallow whole.
63
What is not present in reptile dentition that is in mammalian?
No periodontal ligament in reptiles but present in mammals
64
What are the three types of tooth?
Acrodont Pleurodont Thecodont
65
Describe the three types of tooth and which reptile have them.
Acrodont - attached to crest of bone (very easily damaged). Water dragons and chameleons. Pleurodont - attached to medial aspect of bone with an eroded lingual aspect of tooth. Thecodont - in a socket but with no periodontal ligament. Crocodiles only
66
What is the process of polyphydonty?
The process of teeth being continually replace throughout life.
67
What is the function of an egg tooth?
For rupturing membranes and leathery egg shell
68
Describe the egg tooth in chelonians/crocodiles vs snakes and lizards?
Chelonians/crocodiles - egg caruncle Snakes and lizards - modified maxillary tooth
69
Describe the dentition of chelonians.
Chelonians don't have teeth. Food is crushed by the hard keratinous beaks.
70
Describe the mammalian GI tract compared to the reptilian GI tract.
Reptilian is generally shorter and simpler than the mammalian GI tract.
71
Describe the large intestine of reptiles.
Caecum and colon large as they're herbivores
72
Which factors influence rate of digestion?
Temperature - slows/stops below 7 degrees C (hibernation) Disease status - slows if unwell (oral medication less effective) Diet - herbivore digestion generally slower and less efficient
73
Describe the stomach of reptiles.
Simple, muscular walls
74
Describe the small intestine of reptiles.
Short compared with mammals. Secretion of digestive enzymes from mucosa, pancreas, liver and gall bladder
75
Describe the large intestine of reptiles.
Absorption of excess fluid. Anatomy dependent on lifestyle (large caecum in herbivores)
76
How does the gastrointestinal system of reptiles terminate?
Terminates in the cloaca
77
What are the three compartments of the cloaca and which systems enter each one?
Coprodeum - receives products from GI tract Urodeum - receives products from urinary tract Proctodeum - common opening (storage of products from both before elimination)
78
What is the end product of protein catabolism?
Uric acid
79
Where are the kidneys located in reptiles?
Kidneys located in caudal coelomic cavity.
80
Which structures from the mammalian kidney are present/absent in reptilian kidneys.
No renal pelvis, no loop of Henle and no renal pyramids. Do possess glomerulus, proximal, intermediate and distal tubule.
81
Which reptiles have 'bladders'?
Bladder present in Chelonia and most lizards. No bladder in snakes (some have rudimentary pouch)
82
What is water intake in reptiles through?
Eating and drinking Some species have the ability to absorb water through cloaca
83
What is water loss in reptiles through?
Usual channels
84
How is water conserved in reptiles?
Minima through kidneys Cloacal reflux into colon/bladder Uric acid excretion Renal portal system Reduced glomerular filtration
85
Describe the egg shells of reptiles.
Egg shells are leathery rather than calcified and brittle
86
How are reptile eggs formed for protection?
System of membranes
87
Are reptile eggs water resistant?
Yes but they allow for some gas exchange
88
Describe fertilisation in reptiles.
Fertilisation always internal in reptiles
89
How long can sperm be stored for in reptiles?
Several months
90
What is an oviparous reptile?
Lay eggs which develop outside body. Fertilisation can be internal (reptiles) Yolk is source of nutrients for developing embryo. 2-3 clothes/breeding seasons
91
What is a viviparous reptiles?
Eggs hatched internally and young born 'live'. Gestation = 6 weeks - 6 months. Some have placental type exchange of nutrients. Developing young can compress maternal gastrointestinal tract.
92
At what age do different reptiles reach sexual maturity?
Small lizards - 1-2 years Large lizards and most snakes - 2-3 years Chelonia - 3-8 years
93
What are the two methods recognised for sex determination?
Heteromorphic sex chromosomes (female = ZW, male = ZZ). Temperature related sex determination - incubation temperature influences sex. Results are species dependent.
94
Describe the testes of male reptiles.
Internal testes
95
Describe the hemipenes of lizards and snakes.
Paired extracloacal hemipenes - everted during mating
96
Describe the phallus of Chelonia.
Single phallus - devleoped from proctodeum - protruded during mating
97
What is a common problem in reptile male reproductive systems?
Hemipenes and phallus may both prolapse. This could be due to bad nutrition. Can amputate if needed as not part of urinary system.
98
Describe the ovaries in female reptiles.
Contain a number of follicles (as with birds)
99
What do the two functional oviducts comprise of in reptiles?
Infundibulum, uterine tube, isthmus, uterus and vagina
100
What does the female reproductive system open into?
Urodeum
101
What are the three phases of the female reproductive cycle?
Quiescent - nothing happens Vitteline - yolk laid down in egg Gravid - egg producing (reptile equivalent of pregnancy)
102
Describe the eyelids of snakes.
Snakes have fused transparent eyelids - the spectacle
103
What does the pineal gland have a role in?
Light detection
104
What visual response do reptiles lack?
No consensual pupillary light response
105
Describe the iris of reptiles.
It is a skeletal muscle so no response to atropine.
106
What organ is related to olfaction and what does it do in reptiles?
Jacobsons (vomeronasal) organ - detects pheromones
107
Where are the taste and touch receptors in reptiles?
Receptors on tongue and oral epithelium
108
Which reptiles have external ears?
Snakes (tympanic membrane is the outer margin in other species)
109
Describe the Eustachian tube of reptiles.
Short, open
110
Describe the middle ear bone of reptiles and what it does.
Single middle ear bone - columella Transmits vibrations from air and ground (via quadrate bone of skull)
111
Describe the parietal eye/third eye of reptiles.
No role is vision Detects light
112
Where is the parietal eye found?
Found on top of head between two lateral eyes. Doesn't look like an eye - modified scale

NSF (8 decks)

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