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NSF > Reptile normal structure and function > Flashcards

Reptile normal structure and function Flashcards

1
Q

What are basic features of reptiles?

A

Vertebrates
Heavily keratinised skin
Ectothermic
Internal fertilisation (most egg laying, few live bearing)
Nucleated red blood cells

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2
Q

Describe the thermoregulation of reptiles.

A

Reptiles are ectothermic.
Metabolism and physiological function is directly related to environment conditions.

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3
Q

What is a common issue in thermoregulation of reptiles and what can this lead to?

A

Chronic hypothermia. Leads to impaired metabolic function and immune suppression

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4
Q

What is the preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)?

A

Range which allows the reptile to achieve its preferred body temperature

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5
Q

What is the preferred body temperature (PBT)?

A

Optimum temperature for correct functioning of all body systems

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6
Q

How does the POTZ and PBT change in sick reptiles?

A

Sick reptiles will seek out higher temperatures (behavioural ‘fever’)

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7
Q

What is reptile thermoregulation controlled by?

A

Controlled by the hypothalamus.
Pre-optic nucleus
Receives information from central and peripheral thermoreceptors.

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8
Q

What is the appropriate behavioural mechanism implemented based on?

A

Temperature of blood

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9
Q

What are the two main mechanisms of acquiring heat and what is the difference between them?

A

Heliothermy - solar rays (sun)
Thigmothermy - acquisition of heat via conduction through direct contact with a warm substrate

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10
Q

What happens to the cardiovascular system at high temperatures?

A

HR and vasodilation increases which leads to warm blood to the periphery.

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11
Q

What happens to the cardiovascular system at low temperatures?

A

HR and vasodilation decreases which leads to warm blood being retained in the core.

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12
Q

What other mechanism can be implemented in reptiles to reduce heat loss?

A

Lungs can be bypassed y means of a (right to left) shunt, meaning reduced heat loss by evaporation.
Not breathing out hot air.

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13
Q

What behavioural changes can reptiles implement to affect thermoregulation?

A

Body position and shape
Burrowing/hiding/shade seeking
Pigmentation (darker when cooler to absorb more solar energy)

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14
Q

How does metabolism in reptiles differ to mammals of a similar size?

A

Metabolism is slower than in mammals of a similar size

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15
Q

Which factors will influence metabolic rate in reptiles?

A

Diet - plant eaters vs active hunters
Size - small vs large
Body temperature - cold vs warm
Species

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16
Q

What kind of metabolism of reptiles utilise?

A

Reptiles utilise mainly aerobic metabolism, but will switch to anaerobic metabolism for periods of intense activity.

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17
Q

What are the consequences of the switch from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism?

A

Increase lactic acid production.
Poorly dispersed in reptiles.
Excess lactate = drop in blood pH and decrease affinity for oxygen by haemoglobin.
Further increases meed for anaerobic metabolism.
Short bursts only

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18
Q

What are reptiles hugely dependent on for physiological functions?

A

Light

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19
Q

Which wavelengths of light are important for reptiles and what impact does each have on the health of the reptile?

A

UVA - 320-400 nm. Required for normal feeding behaviour, reproductive activity etc.
UVB - 290-320 nm. Requires for conversion of Vit D3 in skin.

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20
Q

What wavelengths of light does natural sunlight provide? What does this mean when in housing reptiles in captivity?

A

Natural sunlight provides optimum full spectrum, however it is difficult to achieve adequate exposure in most captive situations.

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21
Q

What are the general features of the skeleton of reptiles?

A

Flexible spine (not in Chelonia)
Number of vertebrae highly variable
Ribs well developed (except in Chelonia)
Movement of the head occurs mainly at occipital condyle (atlas and axis firmly attached)

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22
Q

Where is 99% of the bodies calcium stored in reptiles?

A

In the bones

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23
Q

What is the recommended dietary Ca:P ratio?

A

2:1
Dietary calcium to phosphate ratio important

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24
Q

When plasma calcium levels are insufficient to support neuromuscular activity what happens?

A

The parathyroid hormone acts to mobilise calcium from bony stores.

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25
Q

What conditions can develop if calcium metabolism is altered or dietary supply is insufficient?

A

Metabolic bone disease
Hypocalcaemia

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26
Q

Describe the skeletal growth of chelonians, snakes and crocodiles.

A

Just keep getting better.
Epiphyseal growth plates don’t close - no ‘skeletal maturity’ occurs

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27
Q

Describe the skeletal growth of lizards.

A

Have secondary centres of ossification.
Reach skeletal maturity but at a much later date

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28
Q

What feature of the skeleton do reptiles lack that mammals have?

A

The Haversian bone system

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29
Q

Describe bone healing in reptiles.

A

Slow (2-18 months)

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30
Q

How do you encourage fracture repair in reptiles?

A

Correct nutritional deficiencies
Choose method based on species/lifestyle/location of fracture

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31
Q

What are the two skull types seen in reptiles?

A

Diapsid - snakes/lizards/tuatara/crocodilia
Anapsid - Chelonia

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32
Q

Describe an anapsid skull.

A

No temporal fenestrae

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33
Q

Describe a diapsid skull.

A

Supratemporal fenestra
Subtemporal fenestra

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34
Q

What does a kinetic skull mean?

A

Mobile.
Some species have modification to allow maximum gape.
Moveable joints between upper and lower jaw.

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35
Q

Describe the general features of the integument of reptiles.

A

Largest organ in the body
Waterproof - keratinised (evolutionary advantage)
Skin is shed periodically to allow growth (patchy or all at once)

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36
Q

What are the three layers of integument in reptiles?

A

Stratum corneum (top)
Intermediate layer
Stratum germinative (stratum basale) (bottom)

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37
Q

What is ecdysis?

A

Shedding of old skin

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38
Q

What is ecdysis controlled by?

A

Thyroid gland

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39
Q

How does ecdysis vary between snakes and lizards?

A

Complete in snakes
Patchy in lizards

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40
Q

What is an indication that a reptiles is about to shed?

A

The skin that covers the eye becomes cloudy.

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41
Q

What is dysecdysis and what can it be caused by?

A

Failure to shed
Usually husbandry related - require humidity and shedding surface

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42
Q

Describe the red blood cells of reptiles.

A

Nucleated

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43
Q

What percentage of body weight is blood volume in reptiles?

A

8-10%

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44
Q

Where can you take a blood sample in reptiles?

A

Tail
Abdominal vena cava

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45
Q

Describe the heart of reptiles.

A

Three chambers in most reptiles. Crocodiles have four chambers.

46
Q

What is the ‘one’ ventricle in the heart subdivided by and into?

A

It is subdivided by muscular ridges.
Into:
Cavae arteriosum
Cavae pulmonale
Cavae venous

47
Q

How is the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood kept to a minimum in reptilian hearts?

A

Through timing of contractions and division of chambers

48
Q

What happens in the lungs during breath holding?

A

Pressure in the lungs increases

49
Q

What does breath holding cause in the heart?

A

The majority of blood to bypass the pulmonary circulation i.e. a shunt of blood past pulmonary circulation.
Both right to left (more common) and left to right shunts are possible.
Blood enters aortic arches and bypasses the lungs.

50
Q

What does breath holding have implications on?

A

Anaesthesia

51
Q

What veins enter a large renal portal vein and what does this result in?

A

External iliac veins (carrying blood draining from hind limbs). Some blood returning from hindlimb enters kidney before returning to circulation.

52
Q

What are the potential issues with the renal portal system and how much of an issue is it?

A

Used to worry far more but probably not as much of an issue as initially thought.
Not ALL blood drains directly to the kidney.
Hepatic portal system

53
Q

Describe the larynx in reptiles.

A

Easily identifiable

54
Q

What does the trachea lead to and how does this differ in snakes?

A

Leads to paired lungs.
Except in snakes, where left lung often vestigial or absent

55
Q

What structure do reptiles lack in the respiratory system?

A

Diaphragm

56
Q

Describe the lungs of reptiles.

A

Lung is simple sac like structure - reticular pattern of ridges increases surface area for gas exchange.

57
Q

How do reptiles breathe if there is no diaphragm?

A

Negative pressure created by intercostal muscle function (except chelonians who use changes in position of limbs, head and abdominal viscera)

58
Q

What else does the respiratory system in reptiles also have a role in?

A

Buoyancy
Vocalisation
Display

59
Q

What are the 3 phases to respiration in reptiles?

A

Expiration
Inhalation
Rest phase (can last long periods)

60
Q

What is the controlling factor of respiration in reptiles?

A

Temperature
Increased temperature increase oxygen demand and reduces pulmonary resistance.

61
Q

Describe the oral cavity of reptiles.

A

Contains mucus secreting glands which moisten and lubricates food.
In some species it is modified to venom glands

62
Q

Describe the teeth of reptiles.

A

None in chelonians
Present in lizards and snakes - loose attachment as don’t really tear things up just swallow whole.

63
Q

What is not present in reptile dentition that is in mammalian?

A

No periodontal ligament in reptiles but present in mammals

64
Q

What are the three types of tooth?

A

Acrodont
Pleurodont
Thecodont

65
Q

Describe the three types of tooth and which reptile have them.

A

Acrodont - attached to crest of bone (very easily damaged). Water dragons and chameleons.
Pleurodont - attached to medial aspect of bone with an eroded lingual aspect of tooth.
Thecodont - in a socket but with no periodontal ligament. Crocodiles only

66
Q

What is the process of polyphydonty?

A

The process of teeth being continually replace throughout life.

67
Q

What is the function of an egg tooth?

A

For rupturing membranes and leathery egg shell

68
Q

Describe the egg tooth in chelonians/crocodiles vs snakes and lizards?

A

Chelonians/crocodiles - egg caruncle
Snakes and lizards - modified maxillary tooth

69
Q

Describe the dentition of chelonians.

A

Chelonians don’t have teeth.
Food is crushed by the hard keratinous beaks.

70
Q

Describe the mammalian GI tract compared to the reptilian GI tract.

A

Reptilian is generally shorter and simpler than the mammalian GI tract.

71
Q

Describe the large intestine of reptiles.

A

Caecum and colon large as they’re herbivores

72
Q

Which factors influence rate of digestion?

A

Temperature - slows/stops below 7 degrees C (hibernation)
Disease status - slows if unwell (oral medication less effective)
Diet - herbivore digestion generally slower and less efficient

73
Q

Describe the stomach of reptiles.

A

Simple, muscular walls

74
Q

Describe the small intestine of reptiles.

A

Short compared with mammals.
Secretion of digestive enzymes from mucosa, pancreas, liver and gall bladder

75
Q

Describe the large intestine of reptiles.

A

Absorption of excess fluid.
Anatomy dependent on lifestyle (large caecum in herbivores)

76
Q

How does the gastrointestinal system of reptiles terminate?

A

Terminates in the cloaca

77
Q

What are the three compartments of the cloaca and which systems enter each one?

A

Coprodeum - receives products from GI tract
Urodeum - receives products from urinary tract
Proctodeum - common opening (storage of products from both before elimination)

78
Q

What is the end product of protein catabolism?

A

Uric acid

79
Q

Where are the kidneys located in reptiles?

A

Kidneys located in caudal coelomic cavity.

80
Q

Which structures from the mammalian kidney are present/absent in reptilian kidneys.

A

No renal pelvis, no loop of Henle and no renal pyramids.
Do possess glomerulus, proximal, intermediate and distal tubule.

81
Q

Which reptiles have ‘bladders’?

A

Bladder present in Chelonia and most lizards.
No bladder in snakes (some have rudimentary pouch)

82
Q

What is water intake in reptiles through?

A

Eating and drinking
Some species have the ability to absorb water through cloaca

83
Q

What is water loss in reptiles through?

A

Usual channels

84
Q

How is water conserved in reptiles?

A

Minima through kidneys
Cloacal reflux into colon/bladder
Uric acid excretion
Renal portal system
Reduced glomerular filtration

85
Q

Describe the egg shells of reptiles.

A

Egg shells are leathery rather than calcified and brittle

86
Q

How are reptile eggs formed for protection?

A

System of membranes

87
Q

Are reptile eggs water resistant?

A

Yes but they allow for some gas exchange

88
Q

Describe fertilisation in reptiles.

A

Fertilisation always internal in reptiles

89
Q

How long can sperm be stored for in reptiles?

A

Several months

90
Q

What is an oviparous reptile?

A

Lay eggs which develop outside body.
Fertilisation can be internal (reptiles)
Yolk is source of nutrients for developing embryo.
2-3 clothes/breeding seasons

91
Q

What is a viviparous reptiles?

A

Eggs hatched internally and young born ‘live’.
Gestation = 6 weeks - 6 months.
Some have placental type exchange of nutrients.
Developing young can compress maternal gastrointestinal tract.

92
Q

At what age do different reptiles reach sexual maturity?

A

Small lizards - 1-2 years
Large lizards and most snakes - 2-3 years
Chelonia - 3-8 years

93
Q

What are the two methods recognised for sex determination?

A

Heteromorphic sex chromosomes (female = ZW, male = ZZ).
Temperature related sex determination - incubation temperature influences sex. Results are species dependent.

94
Q

Describe the testes of male reptiles.

A

Internal testes

95
Q

Describe the hemipenes of lizards and snakes.

A

Paired extracloacal hemipenes - everted during mating

96
Q

Describe the phallus of Chelonia.

A

Single phallus - devleoped from proctodeum - protruded during mating

97
Q

What is a common problem in reptile male reproductive systems?

A

Hemipenes and phallus may both prolapse.
This could be due to bad nutrition.
Can amputate if needed as not part of urinary system.

98
Q

Describe the ovaries in female reptiles.

A

Contain a number of follicles (as with birds)

99
Q

What do the two functional oviducts comprise of in reptiles?

A

Infundibulum, uterine tube, isthmus, uterus and vagina

100
Q

What does the female reproductive system open into?

A

Urodeum

101
Q

What are the three phases of the female reproductive cycle?

A

Quiescent - nothing happens
Vitteline - yolk laid down in egg
Gravid - egg producing (reptile equivalent of pregnancy)

102
Q

Describe the eyelids of snakes.

A

Snakes have fused transparent eyelids - the spectacle

103
Q

What does the pineal gland have a role in?

A

Light detection

104
Q

What visual response do reptiles lack?

A

No consensual pupillary light response

105
Q

Describe the iris of reptiles.

A

It is a skeletal muscle so no response to atropine.

106
Q

What organ is related to olfaction and what does it do in reptiles?

A

Jacobsons (vomeronasal) organ - detects pheromones

107
Q

Where are the taste and touch receptors in reptiles?

A

Receptors on tongue and oral epithelium

108
Q

Which reptiles have external ears?

A

Snakes
(tympanic membrane is the outer margin in other species)

109
Q

Describe the Eustachian tube of reptiles.

A

Short, open

110
Q

Describe the middle ear bone of reptiles and what it does.

A

Single middle ear bone - columella
Transmits vibrations from air and ground (via quadrate bone of skull)

111
Q

Describe the parietal eye/third eye of reptiles.

A

No role is vision
Detects light

112
Q

Where is the parietal eye found?

A

Found on top of head between two lateral eyes.
Doesn’t look like an eye - modified scale

NSF (8 decks)

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