Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

NSF > Anatomy and physiology of birds 2 > Flashcards

Anatomy and physiology of birds 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the advantage of birds having a bill/beak?

A

It reduced weight

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the bill/beak anatomy dependent on?

A

Lifestyle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are bill/beaks made of?

A

Bony projections covered with a keratinised sheath - rhamphotheca

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the upper beak called?

A

Rhinotheca

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is the lower beak called?

A

Gnathotheca

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Why do beak injuries often need vet treatment?

A

They have blood and nerve supplies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What feature of the beak often causes abnormalities?

A

Continually growing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

How would you describe the abnormality scissor beak?

A

Upper and lower portion of the beak do not line up

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

How would you describe the abnormality parrot beak?

A

Upper beak rests on or inside lower beak

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

How would you describe the abnormality simple overgrowth?

A

Abnormally long (usually upper) beak

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is the cere?

A

A waxy structure at the base of the beak

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Which birds have a cere?

A

Raptors, parrots and owls

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

In the species that possess them, what do the cere house?

A

Nares (in owls the nostrils are distal to the cere)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What can the cere be used for in budgies?

A

Sexing
Blue = male
Pink/beige = female

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What does the structure of the tongue depend on?

A

Diet

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Describe the glottis of birds.

A

It is easily identifiable making intubation easy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Describe the position of the oesophagus.

A

Lateral to the glottis, on the birds right

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is the choanae?

A

Opening on the roof of the oral cavity from the nares (fits over the top of glottis when mouth closed)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What can the choanae be used for?

A

Useful site for swabbing for respiratory disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Describe choanal papillae.

A

Choanal papilla are small spiky projections which are located on the roof of the mouth.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What can the blunting of choanal papillae be an indication of?

A

Nutritional deficiencies - specially hypovitaminosis A
Chronic respiratory disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is the crop?

A

Out pouching of oesophagus.
Muscular sac like structure in proximal oesophagus
Not present in all birds
Varies in size
Highly elastic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is the function of the crop in birds?

A

Acts as a temporary food ‘store’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Why is the crop different in pigeons?

A

It is a double sac.
It produces ‘crop milk’ - fat filled epithelial cells sloughed off and regurgitated to feed young, influences by prolactin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Describe sour crop.

A

Yeast infection/overgrowth leading to thickened crop and disruption of normal bacterial population.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Describe crop impaction.

A

Failure of food to leave the crop and enter the proventriculus.
Often caused by ingestion of stringy material (grass) or sometimes due to disorders of motility

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What are the two sections of a birds’ stomach called?

A

Proventriculus and ventriculus (or gizzard)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What is the function of the proventriculus?

A

Glandular stomach.
Secretes digestive enzymes and caused enzymatic digestion of food.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What is the function of the ventriculus?

A

Muscular stomach.
Caused mechanical breakdown/digestion of food.
Sometimes contains particles of ingested grit to aid grinding of food material.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What is the difference between the small intestine of herbivores/omnivores and carnivores?

A

Herbivores/omnivores = highly coiled
Carnivores = shorter and simpler

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Where is the pancreas located?

A

Between the arms of the duodenal loop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is Vitteline/Mekels diverticulum?

A

Considered to be the junction between jejunum and ileum
Remnant of yolk sac attachment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What is the main function of the large intestine in birds?

A

Reabsorption of water and electrolytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What are the ceca in birds?

A

Outpouchings of large intestine - histologically similar to large and small intestine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Describe the ceca in galliformes (chickens).

A

Large and well developed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Describe the ceca in passeriformes (song birds).

A

Small
(Lymphoid ceca)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is the cloaca?

A

Terminal portion of reproductive tract urinary tract and gastrointestinal tract.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What does the cloaca receive?

A

Waste from GI and renal system
Products of reproductive tract

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the three cloacal regions called and what do they receive/do?

A

Coprodeum - receives faeces and digestive waste from intestine
Urodeum - receives ureters and products of reproductive tract
Proctodeum - houses bursa of fabricus on dorsal midline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What is the external opening of the cloaca called?

A

Vent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Describe the liver of birds.

A

Bilobed (right larger than left)
Located caudal to the heart (no diaphragm) and close to proventriculus and spleen
Gall bladder present

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Describe the pancreas of birds.

A

Usually located within the duodenal loop.
Secretes number of enzymes involved in the digestive process.
Exocrine = amylases, proteases, lipases
Endocrine = insulin, glucagons, somatostatin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Describe the GI tract of seed eaters.

A

Well developed crop, proventriculus and gizzard. Long intestine. Distinct caeca.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Describe the GI tract of fruit eaters.

A

Shorter intestine. Caeca less distinct.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Describe the GI tract of meat/fish eaters.

A

Caeca and gizzard basic. Well developed pancreas and proventriculus.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Describe the kidneys of birds.

A

Paired retroperitoneal organs (as in mammals)
Each kidney has 3 lobes - cranial, middle and caudal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Where does the urine of birds go to from the kidneys?

A

Through the ureters to the cloaca (no urinary bladder)

48
Q

Describe the nephrons of birds and what this means for them.

A

Have both reptilian and mammalian type nephrons.
Can switch between them depending ‘on the need for water concentration.

49
Q

What is the mechanism for reuptake of water in birds?

A

Retrograde flow into colon from cloaca

50
Q

What is the end product of metabolism in birds? Where is this formed and excreted?

A

Uric acid
Formed in liver
Excreted via glomerular filtration and tubular secretions as white ‘precipitate’ within urine

51
Q

Describe normal bird urine.

A

Uric acid precipitate mixed with copious mucus.
Urates should appear white, with clear watery urine.

52
Q

Describe the testes of birds.

A

Paired testes located within the abdominal cavity at the cranial lobe of the kidneys.
The size of them depends on the time of year - increase in size in breeding season.

53
Q

When does the majority of spermatogenesis occur in birds?

A

During the night when temperatures are lower.
The testes are functional at body temperature (40 - 41 degrees C)

54
Q

Which accessory sex glands are present in birds?

A

None

55
Q

Compared to mammals, describe the epididymis of birds.

A

Short

56
Q

Compared to mammals, describe the ductus deferens of birds.

A

Main storage site for sperm
(little capacity for storage as the testes enlarge so much in breeding season)

57
Q

Describe the phallus of ducks, geese and ratites.

A

Intromittant organ - analogous to the penis

58
Q

Describe the phallus of chickens, other fowl and passerines.

A

Non intromittant
Achieve fertilisation by touching phallus to the cloaca of the female

59
Q

Describe the phallus of psittasines.

A

No phallus.
Fertilisation occurs by eversion of the cloaca containing papillae.

60
Q

Describe the ovaries of birds.

A

Only left ovary and oviduct fully developed and functional.
Right ovary and oviduct regress (except in some raptor species)
Ovary located cranial to kidney, tightly attached to dorsal body wall and adhered to caudal vena cava.

61
Q

What are the 5 function regions of the female reproductive tract of birds?

A

Infundibulum
Magnum
Isthmus
Uterus (shell gland)
Vagina

62
Q

What does a mature ovary contain?

A

A bunch of follicles
Resembles a cluster of grapes
Can contain up to 4000 ova

63
Q

Describe development of follicles in female birds.

A

Sequentially

64
Q

Describe follicular stasis.

A

Inappropriate maturation of follicles within the ovary without ovulation

65
Q

What is excessive egg production a result of?

A

An overactive reproductive tract

66
Q

Describe egg binding.

A

Where an egg takes longer than normal to pass out of the reproductive tract.
Can lead to dystocia (failure to lay)

67
Q

What are continual layers?

A

Hens are continual layers (next follicle ovulated about 30 mins after laying)

68
Q

What are determinate layers?

A

Pet birds
Produce a clutch and then egg laying ceases for a period

69
Q

What are indeterminate layers?

A

Cockatiels
Produce clutches but also have the ability to ‘replace’ a lost egg - hence important not to remove these from a pet bird (or replace them with something)

70
Q

What occurs in the infundibulum of female birds?

A

Receives ovulated follicle
Fertilisation takes place in this region - fertilised gamete lies on surface of yolk.
Site of formation of chalazae (albuminous cords which hold yolk in pace)

71
Q

How long does an ‘egg’ spend in the infundibulum?

A

15 - 17 minutes

72
Q

What occurs in the magnum of female birds?

A

Egg white (albumin) develops around follicle/yolk

73
Q

How long does an egg spend in the magnum?

A

180 minutes (3 hours)

74
Q

What occurs in the isthmus of female birds?

A

Shell membranes are produced

75
Q

How long does an egg spend in the isthmus?

A

75 mins

76
Q

What occurs in the uterus/shell gland of female birds?

A

Calcification of the shell

77
Q

How long does an egg spend in the uterus/shell gland?

A

20 hours

78
Q

What occurs in the vagina of female birds?

A

Adds egg cuticle
Also site of sperm storage - sperm storage tubules

79
Q

How many chambers does a birds heart have?

A

4 chambers

80
Q

What do birds have nucleated red blood cells?

A

Evolution
Birds evolved in a period where the earth’s oxygen levels were higher

81
Q

What do birds have higher cardiac output and cardiac size compared to mammals of similar body mass?

A

Flight is metabolically demanding

82
Q

Describe heart size compared to body mass and why this is the case.

A

Heart size is inversely proportional too body mass. As small birds have to flap their wings more.

83
Q

What is the expected blood pressure of birds and how does this compare to mammals of a comparable size?

A

180/140 mmHg
Higher than mammals

84
Q

What can the heart rate reach in birds?

A

800 bpm

85
Q

What can respiratory rate be easily and significantly altered by?

A

Handling

86
Q

What do birds have as well as lungs?

A

System of air sacs

87
Q

What structure do birds not possess?

A

Diaphragm

88
Q

What expands the thoracic cavity? Why is this unique in birds?

A

Thoracic and abdominal muscles expand thoracic cavity. The lungs are fixed and do not expand.

89
Q

What feature allows for a range of vocal sounds in birds?

A

Syrinx

90
Q

What is the syrinx composed of?

A

Last few tracheal rings
First few left and right bronchial rings
Central ‘tympanic’ membrane

91
Q

Describe the upper respiratory tract of birds.

A

Air drawn in through nares and travels through conchae (rostral, middle and caudal) and paranasal sinuses - filters and warms air.

92
Q

How does the nasal cavity communicate with the oral cavity?

A

Via a slit called the choanae

93
Q

What is the second smaller slit caudal to the choanae?

A

Opening into the middle ear

94
Q

Describe the lower respiratory system of birds.

A

Trachea bifurcates into primary bronchi (left and right). Primary bronchi further subdivide into secondary bronchi, then parabronchi.
Parabronchi open into atria which contain air capillaries (analogous with alveoli)

95
Q

What is the name of the system birds breathe using and what does this mean regarding respiratory cycles?

A

Birds breathe using a ‘one way system’.
Two complete respiratory cycles are required for inhaled air to be exhaled again

96
Q

How many air sacs do most birds have?

A

9

97
Q

What are the names of all the air sacs in birds?

A

Interclavicular air sac x1
Cervical air sacs x2
Anterior thoracic air sacs x2
Posterior thoracic air sacs x2
Abdominal air sacs x2

98
Q

What is the function of air sacs in birds?

A

Push air through lungs

99
Q

Describe the lungs of birds.

A

Site for gas exchange.
Parabronchial lungs - system of narrow tubes which allow air flow in one direction only. These are surrounded by capillaries (gas exchange).

100
Q

What happens during inspiration in birds?

A

Air flows down trachea, along bronchi, into posterior air sacs (posterior thoracic/abdominal).
Simultaneously air moves from lungs parabronchi into anterior air sacs (anterior thoracic/interclavicular/cervical)

101
Q

What happens during expiration in birds?

A

Air flows from posterior air sacs through parabronchi.
Air from anterior air sacs expelled through trachea.

102
Q

What are the air sacs extensions of?

A

Muco-serous extension of the secondary bronchi

103
Q

What do some air sacs extend into?

A

Hollow pneumatic bone

104
Q

Which bones in birds are pneumatic bones?

A

Skull, humerus, clavicle, keel, pelvic girdle, lumbar and sacral vertebrae.
(Not found in all birds, and varies with species)

105
Q

Describe the blood supply of air sacs.

A

Poor

106
Q

What results in air sacs being susceptible to bacterial/fungal infection?

A

They are thin walled and have a poor blood supply

107
Q

What can trauma to air sacs result in?

A

Development of sub-cutaneous emphysema

108
Q

Which lymph nodes are present in birds?

A

None

109
Q

Where are immune cells produced in birds?

A

In the embryonic liver, yolk sac and bone marrow

110
Q

Where do immune cells mature in birds?

A

Primary lymphatic organs

111
Q

Where are B cells produced in birds?

A

Bursa of Fabricus

112
Q

Where are T cells produced in birds?

A

Thymus

113
Q

When does bone marrow produce immune cells?

A

When other organs have receded

114
Q

Where is the thymus located?

A

Neck
Recedes in adults
Variable size

115
Q

Where is the Bursa of Fabricus located?

A

Dorsal cloaca
Recedes in adults
Variable size

116
Q

What are the secondary lymphatic tissues in birds?

A

Gut-associated lymphatic tissues (GALT) - caecal tonsils
Respiratory associated lymphatic tissues (RALS)
Conjuctiva associated lymphatic tissues (CALS)
Spleen
Harderian gland - located close to eye

NSF (8 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions