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Biology 1 & 2 > reproduction > Flashcards

reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

population definition

A

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same location

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2
Q

gene pool definition

A

the total number of individual alleles within a particular population

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3
Q

gene definition

A

a section of DNA that carries the code to make a protein

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4
Q

allele definition

A

alternate form of a gene

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5
Q

define genetic diversity

A

the genetic diversity of a population refers to the amount of genetic variation that exists between individuals.
–> this is measured by reference to the populations gene pool, which is the sum of all of the different genes and alleles that are present in a population and, by extension, a species. A larger, more diverse gene pool contains a greater variety of different genes and alleles, meaning that the population will have a greater variety of genotypes and phenotypes.

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6
Q

explain the importance of genetic diversity

A

genetic diversity is vitally important in protecting the longevity of a species by guarding against advantageous and disadvantageous environmental changes, like new diseases or predators. The larger the gene pool, the greater the populations resilience to environmental changes. This is because populations with a greater number of alleles are more likely to contain alleles that are already well adapted to survive the new environmental changes.

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7
Q

sexual reproduction definition

A

a specific reproductive strategy that involves the fusion of two haploid gametes, a process known as fertilization, to form a single, genetically unique, diploid zygote composed of two sets of chromosomes.

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8
Q

reproductive strategies definition

A

adaptations to reproduction that improve the success of survival of a species

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9
Q

fertilisation definition

A

the process by which two gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) fuse and form a zygote

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10
Q

zygote definition

A

the diploid cell formed by the combination of two haploid gamete cells

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11
Q

recall the key advantage of sexual reproduction

A

results in genetic variation (via independent assortment and crossing over) which is key to survival

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12
Q

sexual reproduction

A
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13
Q

asexual reproduction definition

A

producing offspring without the fusion of gametes

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14
Q

clone definition

A

a genetically identical organism or section of DNA

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15
Q

binary fission definition

A

a type of asexual reproduction where one organism divides into two identical organisms

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16
Q

angiosperms definition

A

flowering plants with stems, roots and leaves

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17
Q

pollination definition

A

a form of sexual reproduction in plants that involves the fusion of pollen (male gamete) and ovule (female gamete) and leads to the production of seeds

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18
Q

recall four of the types of asexual reproduction

A
  1. Budding
  2. Fragmentation
  3. Sporogenesis
  4. Parthenogenesis
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19
Q

budding definition

A

a type of asexual reproduction where a group of cells form a bud and break away from the original organism to form a clone

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20
Q

fragmentation definition

A

a type of asexual reproduction where a plant grows from fragments, such as stem or root cuttings, of its parents

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21
Q

sporogenesis definition

A

a type of asexual reproduction where spores form on the surface of the organism and are dispersed into the surroundings where they may develop into individual clones of the original

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22
Q

spores definition

A

small haploid units used as a means of asexual reproduction in sporogenesis

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23
Q

parthenogenesis definition

A

a type of asexual reproduction where an embryo can develop from a single unfertilized gamete

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24
Q

asexual reproduction

A
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25
Q

oviparity definition

A

eggs are released into the external environment and the embryo develops from nutrients inside the yolk

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26
Q

viviparity definition

A

the embryo develops inside the mothers body and is born after a period of gestation

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27
Q

clone definition

A

a genetically identical organism or section of DNA

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28
Q

reproductive cloning technologies

A

artificially induced human interventions to produce genetically identical clones

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29
Q

somatic cell nuclear transfer definition (SCNT)

A

the transference of a somatic cell nucleus into an enucleated egg cell.
–> involves two different cells; a donated egg cell and a donated somatic cell from another animal.

30
Q

enucleated definition

A

a cell that has had its nucleus removed or destroyed

31
Q

recall the 4 stages of SCNT

A
  1. Enucleation
  2. Extraction
  3. Insertion
  4. Development
32
Q

define enucleation (1st stage SCNT)

A

the removal or destruction from the donated egg cell to produce an enucleated egg cell

33
Q

define extraction (2nd stage SCNT)

A

the donated somatic cells nucleus us extracted

34
Q

define insertion (3rd stage of SCNT)

A

the somatic cells nucleus is inserted into the enucleated egg cell

35
Q

define development (4th stage SCNT)

A

following insertion, the cell begins to divide and develop into an embryo, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The pregnancy then continues as normal.

36
Q

in the process of SCNT, the offspring produced…

A

is genetically identical to the donated somatic cell as they both contain the same nucleus and genetic material

37
Q

describe the complication of animal suffering from SCNT

A

SCNT attempts are often unsuccessful, producing non-viable embryos or resulting in miscarriage during pregnancy. This is because the somatic cell nucleus must be converted back into an embryonic state. However, as the somatic cell is fully differentiated, there would be varying degrees or epigenetic alterations and DNA damage, which must be cleared/ reversed to match that of an embryonic state. Unfortunately, correct reprogramming rarely occurs, leading to the inefficient nature of SCMT and the potential for developmental abnormalities to arise.

38
Q

describe the complication of human cloning from SCNT

A

the application of SCNT in humans is illegal in many countries, including Australia. Arguments against SCNT in humans include opposition to the mass destruction of egg cells and embryos from failed attempts, as well as issues surrounding the unethical sourcing of eggs.

39
Q

describe the complication of premature ageing from SCNT

A

studies suggest that clones age at a greater rate due to the shortening of telomeres.

40
Q

therapeutic cloning definition

A

involves the cloning of particular tissues for some medical benefit in humans, and is quickly showing promise as a replacement for conventional medical treatments such as oxygen transplants and skin grafts, and some applications could even involve the treatment of previously untreatable diseases.

41
Q

describe the application of embryo splitting

A

in agriculture, embryo splitting is often conducted in combination with in-vitro fertilization (IVF) where scientists can selectively choose eggs and sperm from parents with desirable traits and fertilize them in a laboratory

42
Q

embryo-splitting definition

A

the division of an early embryo into several individual embryos

43
Q

in-vitro fertilisation definition

A

the fertilization of an egg outside of the body

44
Q

recall the three complications surrounding embryo-splitting

A
  1. Alteration of embryos
  2. Genetic diversity
  3. Research animals
45
Q

define the complication of alteration of embryos in embryo splitting

A

some believe that embryo alteration is acceptable, and others argue that embryos are sacred and should never be altered

46
Q

define the complication of genetic diversity in embryo splitting

A

by producing genetically identical offspring, the genetic diversity of a population is decreased, leaving the population more susceptible to disease and environmental changes

47
Q

define the complication of research animals in embryo splitting

A

the ability to produce large numbers of cloned animals could lead to the commercialization and objectification of research animals, where animals are treated more as objects than living beings.

48
Q

recall the three reproductive cloning technologies in plants

A
  1. Plant tissue culturing
  2. Plant cutting
  3. Plant grafting
49
Q

describe plant tissue culturing

A

the cloning of plant cells on a nutrient culture medium in a controlled environment. As the tissue culture develops, a callus (a mass of plant cells) begins to form. The callus can then be separated into several cultures and stimulated to grow into clones clones of the original plant.

50
Q

describe the application of plant tissue culturing

A

plant tissue cultures can be used to produce plants all year round in a disease-free environment.
- production of clones for agricultural research
- allow conservation groups to clone rare and endangered plants to save them from extinction.

51
Q

describe plant cutting

A

the growth of plants using a fragment of the original. This plant cutting can be planted in soil or water and then, under the correct conditions, the cutting of the plant will grow, producing a clone of the original plant.

52
Q

describe plant grafting

A

involves attaching the stem of one plant (the scion) to the stem of another plant with an already developed root system (the rootstock). Eventually, the two sections of the individuals plants will grow and fuse together, producing a clone of the plant from which the scion was taken from.

53
Q

describe the applications of plant cutting and grafting

A

while both techniques allow for the rapid growth of a desired plant, grafting can often help provide plants with cold tolerance, resistance to disease, and increased productivity.

54
Q

describe the biological implications of plant cloning

A
  • reduction in genetic diversity.
  • more susceptible to disease, pests, and environmental change than a natural population with high genetic diversity.
55
Q

recall the three approaches to bioethics

A
  1. Consequence-based approach
  2. Duty and/or rule based
  3. Virtues based approach
56
Q

define consequence based approach

A

places central importance on the consideration of the consequences of an action (the ends), with the aim to achieve maximisation of positive outcomes and minimisation of negative effects.

57
Q

define duty and/or rule based approach

A

approach is concerned with how people act (the means) and places central importance on the idea that people have a duty to act in a particular way, and or that certain ethical rules must be followed, regardless of the consequences that may be produced.

58
Q

define virtues based approach

A

a person rather than action-based. Consideration is given to the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out the action, providing guidance about the characteristics and behaviours a good person would seek to achieve to then be able to act in the right way.

59
Q

recall the five bioethical concepts

A
  1. Justice
  2. Integrity
  3. Beneficence
  4. Non-maleficence
  5. Respect
60
Q

define justice

A

ensuring fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and burdens in healthcare, and providing equal treatment and access regardless of personal characteristics or social status.

61
Q

define integrity

A

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of information and communication of results; whether favourable or unfavourable in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

62
Q

define beneficience

A

the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

63
Q

define non-maleficience

A

involves avoiding the causations of harm. Harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.

64
Q

define respect

A

involves honoring individuals’ autonomy, confidentiality, and personal values, ensuring informed decision-making and treating each person with dignity and fairness in healthcare and research contexts.

65
Q

ethics definition

A

a field of knowledge that helps individuals exercise moral judgement and determine what is right or wrong

66
Q

applied ethics definition

A

important in helping us bridge the gap between abstract theories we may learn and situations that may be faced in the real world. The application of ethical theories to real-life moral problems and contexts

67
Q

bioethics definition

A

the study of ethical controversies brought about by advances in biology and medicine

68
Q

bioethical issue definition

A

an ethical dilemma pertaining to biology that typically involves a decision-making process between two or more choices or options for an action

69
Q

bioethical approach definition

A

a decision-making framework that helps guide ethical behaviour

70
Q

ethical concept definition

A

a specific perspective or lens used to consider multiple angles of an ethical dilemma

Biology 1 & 2 (8 decks)

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