Renal & Genitourinary Flashcards
Difference in presentation between lower UTI and upper UTI
- Lower UTI: Dysuria (painful urination) + frequency
- Upper UTI: Haematuria + fever
- Difference: Upper UTI patients are more unwell - lower is more localised symptoms
Signs of cystitis
- Dysuria (pain, stinging or burning when passing urine)
- Suprapubic pain or discomfort
- Frequency
- Urgency
- Incontinence
- Confusion is commonly the only symptom in older + frail patients
What will urinalysis show in a lower UTI
- Leukocytes
- Nitrates
- Haemogloblin
What type of urine sample is best to give for testing for a lower UTI?
Midstream urine
(MSU)
What plate do you use for a urine culture + sensitivity?
CLED plate (lactose fermenting bacteria)
What are the causative bacteria for cystitis?
Nmeumonic
KEEPS
* Klebsiella spp
* E. coli
* Enterococcus spp
* Proteus mirabilis/pseudomonas aeruginosa
* Stapylcoccus aureus
What antibobiotic should you avoid in pregnancy?
Cystitis and pregnancy
Nitrofurantoin
(in the third trimester)
Which and what duration of antibiotic should be prescribed for cystitis in pregnancy?
Amoxicillin (after sensitivies are known)
7 days (complicated)
What type of UTIs is nitrofurantoin useful in?
Lower UTIs (cystistis)
Nitrofurantoin = useless in upper UTIs
Contraindications in nitrofurantoin
- Pregnancy (third trimester)
- Renal function eGFR <45
- Side effects (nausea, vomiting, liver problems, neuropathy etc)
What is a problem with trimethoprim?
High rates of bacterial resistance
What group of people should you not treat for cystitis?
Above 65yrs that are asymptomatic
How long do you give someone (uncomplicated) with cystitis antibiotics for?
Un-complicated = non-pregnant women
3 day course of antibiotics
Define ‘complicated’ with UTIs
- Any UTI in the presence of a structurally or functionally abnormal urinary tract - with or without host compromise
- Pregnant
Ix and Mx for a complicated lower UTI
- Always send a sample for culture
- 7 days (longer) antibiotics
Notes: Duration of antibiotics for Lower UTIs
- 3 daysof antibiotics for simple lower urinary tract infections in women
- 5-10 daysof antibiotics for immunosuppressed women, abnormal anatomy or impaired kidney function
- 7 daysof antibiotics for men, pregnant women or catheter-related UTIs
Complications of cystitis
- Pyelonephritis
- Urosepsis
- Septic shock
Complicating factors for UTIs
Complicated
- Anatomical or functional abnormalities within the urinary tract
- Male sex
- Pregnancy
- Immunosuppression (e.g., renal transplant),
- Diabetes
- incomplete voiding,
- indwelling urinary catheter,
- recent instrumentation,
- healthcare-associated infection,
- History of infection with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms or other multi-drug resistant organisms.
Who are classed as ‘uncomplicated’ for lower UTIs?
Non-pregnant women
That’s it
Causes of pyleonephritis
****KEEPS C******
- Klebsiella pneumoniae(gram-negative anaerobic rod)
-
****Escherichia coli**** (gram-neg, anaerobic rod)
- Most common cause
- Part of the normal lower intestinal microbiome → found in faeces + can easily spread to the bladder
- Enterococcus
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Staphylococcus saprophyticus
- Candida albicans(fungal)
Name the routes of infection for pyelonephritis
-
**Ascending**
- Urethra colonised with bacteria
- Massage of urethra during intercourse can force bacteria into the female bladder
- Urethra colonised with bacteria
-
Haematogenous
- S. aureus/Candida
- ****Lymphatic spread****
Presentating Sx for pyeolnephritis
Lower UTI + triad of symptoms:
* Loin or back pain (bilateral or unilateral)
* N+V
* Pyuria (fever)
- Haematuria
- Renal angle tenderness O/E
- Systemic illness
Ix for pyelonephritis
- Urine dipstick - signs of infection
- Nitrates
- Leukocytes
- Non-visible haematuria
- WBC casts (indicate pyuria of renal origin)
- Midstream urine (MSU) - for microscopy, culture, sensitivity
- Essential to establish the causative organism
- Collect before starting antibiotics
- Blood tests
- Raised WBC count (leukocytosis)
- Raised inflammatory markers (CRP, ESR)
- Creatinine (elevated with impaired kidney function)
- Abdominal examination
- Tender loin
- Renal angle tenderness
Mx for pyelonephritis
- Fluid replacement
- IV antibiotics (7-10days) - broad spectrum e.g. co-amoxiclav +/- gentamicin, trimethoprim
- Drain obstructed kidney
- Catheter
Complications of pyelonephritis
- Scarring of the parenchyma
- CKD
- End-stage renal failure
- Renal abscess
Most common cause of non-gonococcal urethritis?
Chlamydia
Young male patient presents with dysruria, discharge and pus from urethra with pain. Possible diagnosis?
Urethritis
Ix for urethritis
Nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)
High specifity and sensitivity
Treatment for chlamydia and gonnorrhoea
Azithromycin
Two main causative organisms of urethritis
- Neisseria gonorrhoae
- Chlamydia trachomatis
Sx for epidydimo-orchitis
- Palpable swelling of testicles + epididymis (tenderness)
- Subacute onset of unilateral scrotal pain + swelling
- STI epidydimo-orchitis (urethritis + urethral discharge)
Causes of prostatitis
E. coli
Chlamydia
Rx for prostatitis
- STI
- UTI
- Indwelling catheter
Presentation of prostatitis
- Extreme lower abdominal, ejaculatory, rectal and perineal pain
- LUTS (dysuria, hesitancy frequency, retention)
- Sexual dysfunction
- Pain and bowel movements
- Tender + enlarged prostate (on DRE)
- Systemic symptoms: Fever, chill, malaise
Differentials for prostatitis
- BPH
- Cystsitis
- Prostate cancer
- Epidydimo/orchitis
Antibiotic for acute and chronic prostasitis
Acute: Trimethoprim
Chronic: Tamulosin (alpha-blockers)
Define testicular torsion
Twisting of the testicular on the spermatic cord → constriction pf the vascular supply → time-sensitive ischaemia → necrosis of testicular tissue → sub-infertility or infertility
8 y/o patient presents with unilateral testicular pain, firm swollen (erythematous) and elevated (retracted) testicle. Possible diagnosis?
Testicular torsion
Gold standard Ix for testicular torsion
Colour doppler ultrasound/ scrotal ultrasound
(Whirlpool sign - absent or decreased blood flow in the affected testicle)
Surgical options for testicular torsion
- Orchiopexy (correct position)
- Orchidectomy (removal of testicle)
What is testicular appendage torsion presentation?
Blue dot sign
Hard tender nodule - may be palpable on the upper pole of the testicle
What is a varicocele
Abnormal dilation of the internal spermatic veins + pampiform venous plexus - that drain from the testis
(caused by venous reflux)
What side does 90% of varicoceles occur?
Left testis
Left testicular vein - left renal vein, right testicular - IVC
What is the condition in which the testis can be described as a ‘bag of worms’
Varicocele
Dull ache, scrotal heaviness
What is an epidydimal cyst that contains sperm called?
Spermatocele
Where do epiydimal cysts lie?
Above and behind testis
What does a epidydimal cysts feel like O/E?
Soft round lump
(typically at the top of the testicle)
May be able to transilluminate
Difference O/E between an epidydimal cyst and a hydrocele
- Epidydmial cyst - testis palpable quite separately from cyst
- Hydrocele - testis palpable within the fluid swelling
Symptoms a patient may feel with an epidydimal cysts
Often asymptomatic
(Painful once they get large)
Ix for epidydimal cyst
Scrotal ultrasound
Management for an epidydimal cyst
- Management = usually not necessary
- Surgical excision if painful or symptomatic
What is a hydrocele?
Abnormal collection of fluid within the tunica vaginalis (fluid surrounds the testes)
(Soft scrotal swelling + usually painless)
Hydroceles can be idiopathic and secondary to what?
- Testicular cancer
- Testicular torsion
- Epididymo-orchitis
- Trauma
What does a hydrocele of the testis look like O/E?
- Soft, non-tender, smooth, cystic swelling
- Irreducible
- Transilluminated (testicle floats within the fluid)
- Painless
Ix for a hydrocele
- Clinical diagnosis
- Scrotal ultrasound (exclude serious causes e.g. cancer)
- Serum AFP + hCG (exclude malignant teratoma or other germ cell tumours)
How do you treat a hydrocele?
- Idiopathic hydrocele = managed conservatively
- Resolve spontaneously
- Large + symptomatic cases
- Surgery (surgical removal)
- Aspiration
- Sclerotherapy
Underlying pathology of BPH
Hyperplasia of the stromal + epithelial cells of the prostate
Testosterine + dihydrotestosterone (DHT) = most significant contributers
How does BPH cause LUT symptoms
Prostate gets bigger → squeezes or partially blocks:
* The bladder → urine retnetion → bladder dilation + hypertrophy → urine statsis → UTIs
* The urethra → urination problems
What is the scoring system for LUTS?
International Prostate Symptoms Score (IPSS)
Signs of BPH
- Bladder stones
- Acute urinary retention
- UTIS (stagnation of urine)
Mneumonic for LUTS
FUNI SHIT PM
* Storage (FUNI): Think pregnant women
* Voiding (SHIT): Think BPH
* PM = post-micturition
3 categories for LUTS
- Storage
- Voiding
- Post-micturition
Name storage LUTS
FUNI:
* F - Frequency
* U - Urgency
* N - Nocturia
* I - Incontinence (urgency)
Think pregnant women
Name the voiding LUTS
S - Straining
H - Hestitancy
I - Incomplete emptying/Intermittent stream
T - Terminal dribbling
Ix for BPH
- DRE
- Abdo examination
- Bladder diary
- Internation Prostate Symptoms Score (IPSS)
- Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) - UNRELIABLE (75% FP, 15% FN) - Patient counselling
- Urinalysis
What does a benign prostate feel like O/E?
- Smooth
- Symmetrical
- Slightly soft
- Maintained central sulcus
What does a cancerous prostate fell like O/E?
- Firm/hard
- Asymmetrical
- Craggy or irregular
- Loss of central suclus
Other Ix for BPH
- Ultrasound of prostate
- CT abdomen/pelvis
- Cystoscopy (prostate size + shape)
- Assessment of renal function
Differentials for BPH
- Prostate cancer
- UTI
- Bladder cancer
- Urethral stricture
- Overactive bladder
- Prostatitis
Lifestyle advice for mild + manageable symptoms of BPH
- Avoid caffeine + alcohol
- Void twice in a row to aid emptying
Name medications to treat BPH and their class
- Alpha-blockers → tamulosin
- 5-alpha reductase inhibitors → finasteride
Tamulosin can cause postural hypotension
Gold standard treatment of BPH (surgical)
Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)
Old men use turps!
Complications of BPH
- UTIs
- Bladder stones
- Haematuria
- Sexual dysfunction
- Acute urinary retention
Aetiology of BPH
Smooth muscle hyperplasia + bladder dysfunction
What symptoms does someone with BPH present with?
LUTS
* Storage (freq, urgency, nocturia, incontinence)
* Voiding (weak stream, dribbling, dysuria, straining)
BPH
Evaluation includes history and examination including an abdominal examination for a palpable bladder, a digital rectal exam, and a neurological assessment.
Define nephrits
Inflammation of the kidneys
Features of Nephritic syndrome?
HOOP:
* Haematuria
* Oliguria (reduced urine output)
* Oedema (fluid retention)
* Proteinuria
What are the levels of proteinuria in nephritic and nephrotic syndrome?
- Nephritic: less than 3g/24 hours
- Nephrotic: more than 3g/24 hours
What is the brief pathology of nephritic syndrome?
- Nephritic → inflammation → haematuria
- Diseases caused by inflammation → damage to the kidney → become more permeable → allows RBCs into urine → haematuria
- Signs, symptoms, pathology:
- Damage → permeable glomeruli → haematuria + proteinuria
- Decreased glomerular filtration rate → oedema + hypertension
- Less waste product excreted → uraemia
What are the causes of nephritic syndrome in children + adults?
Children/adolescents:
* IgA nephropathy
* Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
Adults:
* Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
* Goodpasture’s syndrome (anti-glomerular basement membrane disease)
* Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
Name the major complication of nephritic syndrome
Acute kidney failure
Brief underlying pathology for nephrotic syndrome
Collection of diseases caused by inflammation → damage to glomeruli → more permeable → allow proteins from blood into urine → proteinuria
Features of nephrotic syndrome
Mneumonic
Protein LACE:
* Proteinuria (more than 3g/24 hours)
* Lipid up
* Albumin down (serum less than 25g/L)
* Chlosterol up (hypercholesterolaemia)
* Edema (peripheral oedema)
What are most types of glomerulonephritis treated with?
- Immunosuppresion (e.g. steroids)
- Blood pressure control - by blocking RAAS (ACEi or ARBs)
What does frothy urine indicate?
Protenuria
How do most nephrotic patients present?
- Oedema
- Frothy urine (proteinuria)
What does nephrotic sundrome predispose a patient to?
- Thrombosis
- Hypertension
- High cholesterol
What is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children and adults?
- Children: Minimal change disease
- Adults: Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
If a patient presents with acute renal failure and haemoptysis - what two conditions should you think of?
- Goodpasture syndrome
- Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener’s granulomatosis)
- Goodpasture syndromes = associated with anti-GBM antibodies
-
Wegener’s granulomatosis = a type of vasculitis associated with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA).
- Patients with Wegener’s granulomatosis may also have a wheeze, sinusitis and a saddle-shaped nose.
What histological feature is characteristic of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis?
Cresent glomerulonephritis
What is the main differentiator between nephritic and nephrotic syndrome?
Nephritic: Hameaturia
Nephrotic: Proteinuria (more than 3g/24 hours)
What type of hypersensitivity reaction underpins nephritic syndrome?
Type III hypersensitivity
Low does nephritic syndrome lead to hypertension?
Low filtration → low perfusion to the kidney → activation of RAAS → hypertension
Pathology underlying IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease)
- Abnormal IgA forms → deposits in kidney → kidney inflammation (nephritis) → kidney damage
What is associated with IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease) - that can make it a differentiating factor in diagnosis?
- Associated with GI + respiratory tract infections
- Very short duration between (1-3 days)
First line and gold standard investigations for IgA nephropathy
- First line: Urinalysis (haematuira, proteinuria); eGFR (reduced); CT KUB (normal)
- Gold standard: Kidney biopsy (diffuse mesangial IgA deposition)
What is the positive histological feature of IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease)
Diffuse mesangial IgA deposition
Treatment for IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease)
- Immunosuppressants (prednisolone + cyclophoshamide)
- ACEi for hypertension
What is post-streptococcal glomulerilonephritis?
- Inflammation of the glomeruli as a complication of a bacterial infection
- Occurs 1-3 weeks after a Group A β-haemolytic streptococcusinfection, such astonsillitiscaused byStreptococcus pyogenes.
A patient presents with haematuria after having tonsilits 2 weeks before. Possible diagnosis?
Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
What causes post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis?
Group A beta-haemolytic streptococcal pyogenes infection
(1-2 weeks after throat infection)
(6 weeks after skin infection (impetigo))
Underlying pathology of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
- Group A β-haemolytic streptococcus pyogenes infection (e.g. tonsillitis)
- 1-3 weeks after immune complexes (strep antigens + antibodies + complement proteins) = get stuck in the glomeruli of the kidneys
- Inflammation → acute deterioration in renal function → acute kidney injury (AKI)
Symptoms that a patient may experience with post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
- Fever
- Headache
- Malaise
- Anorexia
- Nausea