Remembering and forgetting Flashcards
what is encoding?
registering new information into memory
what is storage?
storing the newly encoded information in memory
what is retrieval?
recovery of previously stored information
why is it that some things are better remembered than others?
modal model
According to the modal model, the likelihood of transfer from STM to LTM is a function of the amount of rehearsal
what are the two types of rehearsal?
2 types
maintenance rehearsal (type I)
elaborative rehearsal (type II)
what is maintenance rehearsal?
repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory
what is elaborative rehearsal?
an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by liking new information to what one already knows
what do perceptual and comprehension processes leave?
Perceptual and comprehension processes leave behind a memory trace
- the deeper an item is processed the better it is retained
levels of processing theory: what is the important thing to study?
not the inherent properties of memory systems, but rather the nature of encoding processes
support for levels-of-processing theory?
Craik and Tulving (1975)
Craik and Tulving’s experiment 1
6 steps
- presented a list of words
- each word could be associated with one of three types of encoding
- imagine one of the words was MEAL
Three encoding conditions: - Structural (Orthographic): Is the word in upper case? (Yes)
- Phonological: Does the word rhyme with “mat”? (No)
- Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence: “the man ate his_____” ? (Yes)
what does memory performance depend on?
the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those used when memory is tested
what does the levels of processing assume?
it assumes that semantic processing is always better than non-semantic processing
what were the results of Morris et al., 1977?
3 results
- Effect in standard test consistent with levels-ofprocessing view
- But opposite result for rhyming test
- Semantic processing does not always enhance memory
what does the encoding specificity principle suggest?
effectiveness of memory retrieval is influenced by the degree to which the cues present during retrieval match those present during encoding.
evidence for the encoding-specificity principle
3 points
- Which of the following cues will be more effective for recalling the word PIANO?
– 1) something melodious?, or
– 2) something heavy?
Depends on the learning context (Barclay et al., 1974) - Participants who learn in this context: The man tuned
the PIANO showed better recall with cue (1) than cue (2) - Participants who learn in this context: The man lifted
the PIANO showed better recall with cue (2) than cue (1)
Conclusion: Participants encoded words with their
context
what are contextual cues?
environmental cues which aid in accessing the memories formed in a certain context
example:
- Inability to recognise a face when it is seen out of context is a common example of the importance of
contextual cues.
what are the two types of context?
intrinsic & extrinsic
intrinsic context
features that are integral to the stimulus
extrinsic context
other features present at time of encoding (including one’s own cognitive state)
contextual cues (Godden and Baddeley experiment, 1975)
2 steps
- divers were asked to learn lists of words on land or underwater
- recall was then tested either on land or underwater
what were the results of Godden and Baddeley
words learned on land had better recall on land than underwater vice versa
what is state-dependent recall
the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at the time of encoding and time of recall (e.g. drunk/sober)
state-dependent recall evidence:
4 effects
effects demonstrated for participants under influence of drugs, including:
- alcohol
- caffeine
- nicotine
- marijuana
benefits of organisation
organising information improves recall
benefits of organisation: Mandler 1967
participants asked to organise words on
printed cards into different piles => had to come up with 5-7 piles
* Group 1 told that there would be a memory test for the words
* Group 2 told about test and asked to organise the words
* Group 3 only asked to organise the words
* The results showed the following pattern of recall:
Group 2 = Group 3 > Group 1
what does forgetting reflect?
forgetting often reflects inability to access memory rather than a loss of memory
testing memory through recognition tests
Testing memory through recognition tests compared to recall tests often reveals that more is available than is necessarily accessible
why do we forget?
2 points
- perhaps long-term memories gradually fade over time
- the Law of Disuse
what does the decay theory suggest?
Decay theory suggests that rate of forgetting should be fixed over a given period of time, whatever the individual does in that time
what is the interference theory?
interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another
Interference versus Decay
2 points
- If forgetting is due to decay, then recall should simply depend on length of retention interval
- If forgetting is due to interference, then recall should depend on amount of similar learning within the retention interval
according to decay theory there should be:
According to decay theory, there should be more
forgetting after longer retention intervals even
though the amount of new information remains constant
according to interference theory there should be:
According to interference theory, there should be more forgetting after more new learning even when length of retention interval remains constant
is the rate of forgetting constant? Jenkins and Dallenbach
Jenkins and Dallenbach 1924:
1. participants learned nonsense syllables either:
a) immediately before bed or at the beginning of the day
2. they were tested immediately or 1,2,4 or 8 hours later
Therefore:
no, the rate of forgetting is not constant - it is slower when people are sleeping
what is retroactive interference?
retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from LTM
what did Baddeley and Hitch’s 1977 rugby player study demonstrate?
*Baddeley and Hitch’s (1977) study demonstrates
retroactive interference (RI): later learning disrupts earlier learning
RI: First language attrition & witnesses
2 points
- RI may also explain why people forget words from their native language after acquiring a second language
- also has implications for distortion of eye witness memory by questioning
what is proactive interference?
proactive interference occurs when old information stored in LTM interferes with the learning of new information
remembering and forgetting summary:
5 points
- Forgetting follows a logarithmic function first discovered by Ebbinghaus
- But - important distinction between availability and
accessibility (forgetting function applies more to recall) - Two common explanations of forgetting from LTM are decay and interference
- Forgetting (from LTM at least) is not simply a function of time; interference rather than decay seems to be critical factor (e.g., Baddeley & Hitch, 1977; Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924).
- Two types of interference: proactive and retroactive.
