Remembering and forgetting

Question 1

what is encoding?

Answer 1

registering new information into memory

Question 2

what is storage?

Answer 2

storing the newly encoded information in memory

Question 3

what is retrieval?

Answer 3

recovery of previously stored information

Question 4

why is it that some things are better remembered than others?

modal model

Answer 4

According to the modal model, the likelihood of transfer from STM to LTM is a function of the amount of rehearsal

Question 5

what are the two types of rehearsal?

2 types

Answer 5

maintenance rehearsal (type I)
elaborative rehearsal (type II)

Question 6

what is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 6

repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory

Question 7

what is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 7

an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by liking new information to what one already knows

Question 8

what do perceptual and comprehension processes leave?

Answer 8

Perceptual and comprehension processes leave behind a memory trace
- the deeper an item is processed the better it is retained

Question 8

levels of processing theory: what is the important thing to study?

Answer 8

not the inherent properties of memory systems, but rather the nature of encoding processes

Question 9

support for levels-of-processing theory?

Answer 9

Craik and Tulving (1975)

Question 10

Craik and Tulving’s experiment 1

6 steps

Answer 10

1. presented a list of words
2. each word could be associated with one of three types of encoding
3. imagine one of the words was MEAL
   Three encoding conditions:
4. Structural (Orthographic): Is the word in upper case? (Yes)
5. Phonological: Does the word rhyme with “mat”? (No)
6. Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence: “the man ate his_____” ? (Yes)

Question 11

what does memory performance depend on?

Answer 11

the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those used when memory is tested

Question 12

what does the levels of processing assume?

Answer 12

it assumes that semantic processing is always better than non-semantic processing

Question 13

what were the results of Morris et al., 1977?

3 results

Answer 13

• Effect in standard test consistent with levels-ofprocessing view
• But opposite result for rhyming test
• Semantic processing does not always enhance memory

Question 14

what does the encoding specificity principle suggest?

Answer 14

effectiveness of memory retrieval is influenced by the degree to which the cues present during retrieval match those present during encoding.

Question 15

evidence for the encoding-specificity principle

3 points

Answer 15

• Which of the following cues will be more effective for recalling the word PIANO?
  – 1) something melodious?, or
  – 2) something heavy?
  Depends on the learning context (Barclay et al., 1974)
• Participants who learn in this context: The man tuned
  the PIANO showed better recall with cue (1) than cue (2)
• Participants who learn in this context: The man lifted
  the PIANO showed better recall with cue (2) than cue (1)
  Conclusion: Participants encoded words with their
  context

Question 16

what are contextual cues?

Answer 16

environmental cues which aid in accessing the memories formed in a certain context
example:
- Inability to recognise a face when it is seen out of context is a common example of the importance of
contextual cues.

Question 17

what are the two types of context?

Answer 17

intrinsic & extrinsic

Question 18

intrinsic context

Answer 18

features that are integral to the stimulus

Question 19

extrinsic context

Answer 19

other features present at time of encoding (including one’s own cognitive state)

Question 20

contextual cues (Godden and Baddeley experiment, 1975)

2 steps

Answer 20

1. divers were asked to learn lists of words on land or underwater
2. recall was then tested either on land or underwater

Question 21

what were the results of Godden and Baddeley

Answer 21

words learned on land had better recall on land than underwater vice versa

Question 22

what is state-dependent recall

Answer 22

the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at the time of encoding and time of recall (e.g. drunk/sober)

Question 23

state-dependent recall evidence:

4 effects

Answer 23

effects demonstrated for participants under influence of drugs, including:
- alcohol
- caffeine
- nicotine
- marijuana

Question 24

benefits of organisation

Answer 24

organising information improves recall

Question 25

benefits of organisation: Mandler 1967

Answer 25

participants asked to organise words on
printed cards into different piles => had to come up with 5-7 piles
* Group 1 told that there would be a memory test for the words
* Group 2 told about test and asked to organise the words
* Group 3 only asked to organise the words
* The results showed the following pattern of recall:
Group 2 = Group 3 > Group 1

Question 26

what does forgetting reflect?

Answer 26

forgetting often reflects inability to access memory rather than a loss of memory

Question 27

testing memory through recognition tests

Answer 27

Testing memory through recognition tests compared to recall tests often reveals that more is available than is necessarily accessible

Question 28

why do we forget?

2 points

Answer 28

• perhaps long-term memories gradually fade over time
• the Law of Disuse

Question 29

what does the decay theory suggest?

Answer 29

Decay theory suggests that rate of forgetting should be fixed over a given period of time, whatever the individual does in that time

Question 30

what is the interference theory?

Answer 30

interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another

Question 31

Interference versus Decay

2 points

Answer 31

• If forgetting is due to decay, then recall should simply depend on length of retention interval
• If forgetting is due to interference, then recall should depend on amount of similar learning within the retention interval

Question 32

according to decay theory there should be:

Answer 32

According to decay theory, there should be more
forgetting after longer retention intervals even
though the amount of new information remains constant

Question 33

according to interference theory there should be:

Answer 33

According to interference theory, there should be more forgetting after more new learning even when length of retention interval remains constant

Question 34

is the rate of forgetting constant? Jenkins and Dallenbach

Answer 34

Jenkins and Dallenbach 1924:
1. participants learned nonsense syllables either:
a) immediately before bed or at the beginning of the day
2. they were tested immediately or 1,2,4 or 8 hours later
Therefore:
no, the rate of forgetting is not constant - it is slower when people are sleeping

Question 35

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 35

retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from LTM

Question 36

what did Baddeley and Hitch’s 1977 rugby player study demonstrate?

Answer 36

*Baddeley and Hitch’s (1977) study demonstrates
retroactive interference (RI): later learning disrupts earlier learning

Question 37

RI: First language attrition & witnesses

2 points

Answer 37

• RI may also explain why people forget words from their native language after acquiring a second language
• also has implications for distortion of eye witness memory by questioning

Question 38

what is proactive interference?

Answer 38

proactive interference occurs when old information stored in LTM interferes with the learning of new information

Question 39

remembering and forgetting summary:

5 points

Answer 39

• Forgetting follows a logarithmic function first discovered by Ebbinghaus
• But - important distinction between availability and
  accessibility (forgetting function applies more to recall)
• Two common explanations of forgetting from LTM are decay and interference
• Forgetting (from LTM at least) is not simply a function of time; interference rather than decay seems to be critical factor (e.g., Baddeley & Hitch, 1977; Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924).
• Two types of interference: proactive and retroactive.