Religious Language Flashcards
Outline cognitive and non-cognitive language
Cognitive - tends to be synthetic, conveys factual information and can be shown to be true or false via sense experience.
Non-cognitive - conveys emotions, gives orders or is a moral statement. Conveys no factual information
Outline logical positivism
Originating from the Vienna Circle in the 20th century, logical positivism proposes that a statement can only be meaningful if verifiable.
A statement can only be verified if they are analytic and therefore true by definition, so a tautology. Or if they can be proven synthetically, through empiricism.
Outline AJ Ayer’s verification principle.
The verification principle allows for more flexibility when deciding if a statement is meaningful or not, compared to the original version.
Verification in practice: requires direct sense experience to support a statement.
Verification in principle: Direct proof does not need to be obtained but we know how a statement could be in principle tested empirically.
What is the implication of the Verification Principle for religious language.
As religious statements are neither empirically verifiable or analytic, religious language is meaningless.
This would also apply to ethical statements which are simply expressions of emotion.
Ayer argues statements such as “God exists” is “nonsensical.”
“no sentence which purports to describe the nature of a transcendent God can possess any literal significance” - Ayer
Outline the strengths of the Verification Principle
Straight forward in the criteria it demands a statement to meet in order to be classified as meaningful.
Compatible with the scientific method and understanding of reality: Modern society values empiricism and views science as the correct way for gaining knowledge. Verification restricts meaning to whatever we have, or can in principle have, scientific evidence for.
Consistent with ideas from other schollars: Locke and Hume simialrly argue that truth and knowledge are gained via the senses.
Ayer’s weaker version is more applicable as it allows for statements about history.
Outline the weaknesses of the verification principle
The principle fails to meet its own criteria. The notion of something being “meaningful” is unverifiable itself. It is neither a tautology nor can be empirically proven.
Hick argues religious statements can be verified, eschatologically. He uses his parable of the “celestial city to outline this”
Overemphasis on epistemic imperialism, and empirical means being the only way of gaining knowledge. Many people believe a statement can be meaningful without it needing to be scientific. Wittgenstein highlights how religious language can be meaningful even for only those operating within its game. For Feidists belief in a religion is a matter of faith alone and therefore religious statements don’t require proof for them to be meaningful.
Outline the falsification principle
Popper proposes the falsification principle as a criteria to establish if a statement is scientific and factual.
Popper argues “science should attempt to disprove a theory rather than continually support a probable hypothesis” and therefore a statement is only scientific if there is a form of evidence which could falsify it.
Anthony Flew extends the falsification principle to the meaning of language. He argues a statement is only meaningful if it can be falsified.
Outline the Parable of the invisible gardener.
Two explorers come across a clearing in a jungle which one (representing a theist) believes to be evidence of a gardener. The other explorer (agnostic) is sceptical and so the two set up a series of empirical tests to test this theory. The two kept watch, set up an electric fence etc:
After several tests, no gardener is detected yet rather than except this as evidence to falsify their belief in a gardener, the explorer continuously modifies their definition of a gardener. What once was believed to be a flesh and blood gardener, becomes reduced down to one which is undetectable and invisible.
Flew uses this analogy to reflect how theists continuously qualify their definition of God in the face of any contradictory evidence to God’s existence. As a result, God dies the death of “a thousand qualifications.”
Therefore, by using the falsification principle, religious language is rendered meaningless as for a theist, there is nothing which could falsify their belief.
Outline Basil Mitchell’s argument against the falsification principle
Mitchell argues against Flews’ falsification principle, stating that a theists beliefs are neither provisional hypotheses, nor are they a “vacuous formulae.” Meaning they are not a scientific statement which is detached from the observer but they are also not something a believer holds on to indefinitely regardless of any evidence to the contrary.
Mitchell says that religious language is therefore a midway between these two things. As a significant article of faith, a theist is unlikely to immediately withdraw their belief in the presence of the slightest of evidence, as they are committed to such beliefs. However, they will not necessarily hold onto their beliefs in the presence of overwhelming evidence to the contrary.
Therefore, what is needed to falsify a theists belief that “God exists” is relative to that particular person and their personal limit of what will make them abandon their faith.
Evaluate the falsification principle
In accordance with science which is valued in modern society and reflects the emphasis on empiricism in the 21st century. Similarly, captures the scientific method better than the verification principle, as science aims to test and disprove theories rather than solely looking for verifications of it.
The falsification principle can allow us to test whether someone’s beliefs are rooted in reality or not. Rational beliefs will be able to answer what type of evidence could question their beliefs opposed to having blind faith.
The falsification principle fails its own criteria. It cannot be outlined what type of evidence would be needed to show that the falsification principle is the wrong way of categorising language as meaningful.
Arguments against from Mitchell and scripture. St Paul wrote the “if Christ has not been raised than your faith is pointless.” This therefore suggests evidence to discredit Jesus’ resurrection would falsify a theists beliefs.
Over emphasis on the scientific method. Renders and statement not gathered through empirical means as meaningless. However many ethical statements have meaning but can’t necessarily be falsified.
Outline religious language games
Proposed by Ludwig Wittgenstein
“don’t ask for the meaning, ask for the use” emphasises the contextual importance of language.
Language operates within a specific game in a particular form of life where certain agreed upon rules on how language is used exist. These forms of life refer to the habitual activities and responses which form the background to any use of language.
Language is only meaningful to people who operate within the game it is used.
Meaning is subjective to each language game and form of life and therefore cannot be established objectively. Therefore, people outside the religious language game cannot use scientific language to discredit it.
Outline strengths of language games
Wittgenstein recognises that religious and scientific statements are different and therefore should be treated as such and cannot be used to discredit the other. This defends religious language from the challenges of falsification and verification.
Consistent with how humans approach everyday life - We recognise that different social settings have different rules. Similarly, code switching refers to when a speaker alternates between 2+ languages within a single conversation dependent on the context.
Positivist approach: recognises multiple religions can be simultaneously meaningful. This pluralist approach promotes a respectful outlook to differing communities.
Outline weaknesses of language games
Describes theistic language to be non-cognitive, which many religious people will disagree with. Theists believe the religious claims they make are cognitive statements containing facts.
Can lead to theological anti-realism. Wittgenstein appears to suggest that when an individual says “God exists” they do not mean this in an objective sense but rather they are expressing participation in a particular form of life and speaking in a way due to internalising a set of behavioural rules within that form of life. However, for a theist, they believe the religious statements they make are cognitive and thus, contain objective truths.
Wittgenstein may have overemphasised the disconnect between religious and scientific language. Eg Polkinghorne, a religious scientist, demonstrated the capability of the seperate forms of life interacting.
Discourages connection and renders inter-faith dialogue futile. Allows differing religions to coexist but prevents their cooperation as language games would suggest they would be incapable of understanding each other as they are operating within different religious forms of life.
Outline the concept of bliks
Hare’s bliks refer to a mental framework of interpretation which forms the lens in which we see the world. It is logically prior to the facts and is non-cognitive.
Illustrated in the parable of the lunatic, a student has a particular blik which makes them believe all the dons want to kill them. Despite being presented with several friendly dons to challenge this belief, the students’ blik will not allow them to accept anything to the contrary and to falsify their beliefs about the homicidal dons.
Outline strengths of the concept of bliks
Supported by Hume: objective observations on the world can never truly be made as all evidence is open to interpretation.
Consistent with cognitive psychology.
Defends religious language from the falsification principle and theological beliefs cannot be falsified as they are bliks. They are deeply rooted and held.
