Normative Ethics

Question 1

Define phronesis

Answer 1

using practical wisdom

Question 2

Define phronimos

Answer 2

A man of practical wisdom

Question 3

Define temperance

Answer 3

Cardinal virtue of self control

Question 4

Define eudaimonia

Answer 4

Human flourishing which Huta and Waterman states to be “the result of virtue, excellence and the best within us”

Question 5

Define theoria

Answer 5

Intellectual virtue of contemplation and reason

Question 6

How does Aristotle define virtues

Answer 6

“a mean between two vices”

Question 7

Which key book outlines virtue ethics?

Answer 7

Nichomachean Ethics

Question 8

Outline virtue ethics

Answer 8

An inward facing theory grounded in cultivating autonomy within an individual by giving them the skills to develop into a virtuous person.

An action can only be virtuous if it is voluntary

Holistic: focuses on the whole life of an individual. Aristotle states “one day or a short time does not make a blessed man happy.”

Eudaimonia is the result of fulfilling a greater human purpose

Question 9

Outline the virtues

Answer 9

4 primary moral virtues:
prudence, temperance, justice and fortitude

5 primary intellectual:
technical skills, practical and theoretical wisdom, scientific knowledge, intelligence

4 secondary intellectual virtues:
cleverness, judgement, resourcefulness and understanding.

Question 10

Outline what virtues are with supporting quotes

Answer 10

Virtues lie between a golden mean. Aristotle states this mean is “relative to us”

This subjective nature means it can be hard to decipher where the mean lies and so a phronimos can best determine this.

Justice “is every virtue summed up” - it has no mean and is altruistic.

Question 11

Outline the strengths of virtue ethics

Answer 11

Holistic:
“rather than to simply prescribe a list of duties” Nussbaum praises VE for considering the whole the individual and cultivating moral excellence.

Value in practical wisdom:
Barry Schwartz praises how VE promotes an individual developing their own moral skills rather than relying on absolute rules. He argues “moral skill is chipped away by an overreliance on rules”, rules which can “spare us from thinking.”

Does not rely on faith which is useful in a society which is more secular. Ainscomb highlights how if society no longer turns to God as a source of moral authority we need a way of developing virtues.

Does not demand perfection

Question 12

Outline the weaknesses of virtue ethics

Answer 12

Lacks cultural relativism:
Despite Nussbaum attempt at arguing certain virtues are universal such a justice, this defence fails as there are radically different ways justice is implemented across different societies and how it is perceived throughout time.

Anthropocentric:
Peter Singer uses Aristotle’s hierarchy of souls do demonstrate how VE can be criticised for speciesism.

Lacks objectivity:
VE is good for individual growth but is too broad to be implemented in society. Society needs laws and rules to function.

Democratic countries cannot make decisions based on individual character. For example, UK political morality tends to operate on consequentialist/utilitarian principles which aims to maximise the greatest good for the greatest number.

Question 13

Define the 4 law’s Aquinas outlines

Answer 13

Eternal - the mind of God beyond human comprehension.

Divine - eternal law revealed to humans ie: through scripture, Jesus’ teachings

Natural: “right reason in accordance with nature” Reflection on human nature and consideration of how to do good and avoid evil.

Human: the customs and practices within a particular society.

The eternal law is unchanging and binding upon all people at all times. Therefore, human laws should be in accordance with the divine and natural law. Aquinas argues for human laws to be legitimate they must be consistent with the divine law.

“man is bound to obey secular rules to the extent that the order of justice requires”

Question 14

Outline natural moral law

Answer 14

Deontological ethical based theory developed from Aristotle’s idea that everything has a telos. For humans, Aquinas states this telos is human flourishing, eudaimonia, which can be facilitated through fulfilling the primary precepts.

Aquinas outlines the synderesis principle which he believes governs all human actions. This refers to an innate knowledge of morality and the natural inclination to do good and avoid evil. “natural disposition of the rational mind.”

Through our use of reason and reflection upon our telos, the 5 primary precepts will become self evident.

Worship God, maintain an ordered society, reproduce, learn and educate and defend the innocent. We have a duty to follow these.

We then apply secondary precepts to fulfil the primary ones in particular situation.

This helps us achieve eudaimonia, ultimate human flourishing through union with God.

Question 15

Evaluate the strengths of NML

Answer 15

Deontological based ethics give clear guidelines on how to approach moral situations. Aquinas’ approach reflects Cicero’s statement: “one law both everlasting and unchangeable will encompass all nations for all time” Waters praises NML for offering a universal approach to ethics as common rules enable stability within society.

The UN declaration of human rights is an example of a universally binding code of conduct. This has been helpful as it sets a global standard.

Finnis offered a modern development of NML, enabling it to remain relevant within the 21st century. He built on the idea that humans have an innate purpose in which can be fulfilled through certain actions.

Finnis believed that ethics should be about human flourishing and this can only be done in a society which upholds certain basic goods. For Finnis there are 7 basic goods for human flourishing and that are universal for all humans. Through the use of theoretical reason these goods will become self evident. (knowledge/friendship.) His development of NML enables it to stay meaningful within a secular society as it is not dependent on belief in God.

Despite cultural differences most societies would agree we have a moral inclination towards the good. Moreover, as these laws are to be discovered, rather than created, they transcend government, politics etc: Meaning these certain responsibilities and duties ca

Question 16

Evaluate the weaknesses of NML

Answer 16

Outdated and inconsistent with modern thinking and sexual ethics. Eg: the primary precepts would prohibit homosexual relationships as this does not contribute towards reproduction. Moreover, in a time of overpopulation and STI’s precepts such as reproduction are arguably irresponsible.

Dependent on belief in God. Natural moral law only works for theists, those not brought up in a religious culture would be unlikely to arrive at the primary precept of worshipping God. Similarly, atheists argue the use of reason would more likely lead to questioning the existence of God.

Decline in theism over time contradicts the idea that NML is binding upon all people at all times.

Assumes the universe has a purpose. The notion of telos is central to Aquinas’ natural moral law. However, existentialists would not agree that everything has a purpose. Paul Satre argues “existence proceeds essence” and therefore there is neither innate purpose of ourselves nor the universe.

If the precepts were universal and to be discovered we would see more moral agreement.

It is too rigid and fixed to be practically applied to the complex situations in the human life. William Temple argues “love is the only universal” Jesus was shown to break the laws in order to do the right thing (eg: healing on the Sabbath)

Question 17

Outline the proportionalist approach and the doctrine of the double effect

Answer 17

Developed by Hoose, Proportionalism works within the framework of NML but allows the law to be laid aside if a greater good would be achieved by doing so.

“It is never right to go against a principle unless there is a proportionate reason for doing so.”

This approach could be critiqued by Catholics - some actions are intrinsically evil and therefore there is never a proportionate reason for doing them.

Developed by Aquinas, the Doctrine of double effect is relevant within situations where a single action has two effects. This makes a distinction between intention and foresight.

Doing something morally good which also brings about bad consequences is permissible if the bad side effect was not intended.

Question 18

Outline on situation ethics

Answer 18

Teleological based ethical theory, developed by Joseph Fletcher which is focussed on the consequences of an action.

Fletcher argues the “the morality of an action is dependent on the circumstance”

Grounded in Christian unconditional, selfless love, agape.

William Temple - “love is the predominant Christian impulse”

4 presuppositions:
relativism
positivism
pragmatism
personalism

6 working principles:
“love is justice distributed”
love is the only absolute
Christian decision making is based on love.
Love justifies the means.
Loves decisions are carried out situationally rather than prescriptively.

Jesus was a situationist and was prepared to break the laws of the day in the name of agape eg: healing on the Sabbath

Situation ethicists should use their agapeic calculus used to decipher what is the most loving thing.

Question 19

Evaluate the strengths of Situation Ethics

Answer 19

Flexible - accounts for the complexity of human life.

Grounded in Christian teaching.

Gives the individual autonomy - situation ethics gives an individual the moral responsibility to make decisions for themselves, by using their agapeic calculus and making decisions on a situational basis.

Question 20

Evaluate the weaknesses of situation ethics

Answer 20

Issue of subjectivity with what is considered love - Situation ethics risks people making decisions to serve their own needs in the name of love. Individual decisions makes Situation Ethics open to exploitation.

Barclay argues this gives people “a terrifying degree of freedom” and that the “lesson of experience is that we need a certain amount of law”

Certain widespread rules are needed to establish stability within society.

Pope Pius XII believes the subjectivity of Situation Ethics can risk people slipping into antinominalism.

Fletcher argues the “morality of an action is dependent on the circumstance” however the Catechism describes certain actions, such as rape, as intrinsically evil.