religion and beliefs Flashcards
1
Q
who are the functionalist sociologists
A
Durkheim, Bellah, Beckford, Parsons and Malinowski
2
Q
what do functionalists argue the function of religion is
A
a conservative force, reinforce norms and values (social cohesion)
3
Q
what is religion like according to Durkheim
A
a social cement
4
Q
what did Durkheim study to discover totemism
A
an Australian aboriginal tribe
5
Q
what did totemism highlight
A
a difference between sacred and profane, worshipping the totem pole establishes what’s important in society
6
Q
how does religion socialise individuals
A
religion sets moral values and ensures social stability
7
Q
how does religion serve the discipline function
A
religious rituals impose self- discipline and to be selfless
8
Q
how does religion serve the vitalising function
A
ensures traditions are passed down by generations and kept vital
9
Q
how does religion serve the euphoric function
A
if members were to lose faith, religion reminds them of their place in something much bigger
10
Q
what does all functions of religion reinforce and prevent
A
reinforces social solidarity and prevents anomie
11
Q
evaluation of Durkheim
A
- outdated, we now live in a multicultural society with no unifying religion
- religion can be a form of oppression, marx and fem
- religion can be dysfunctional and cause conflict
12
Q
what does Bellah argue
A
in modern society, social cohesion is carried out by civil religion
13
Q
what is an example of civil religion
A
Americanism, pledging allegiance to the flag etc
14
Q
evaluation of Bellah
A
can americanism be described as a religion with no belief in a supernatural etc?
15
Q
evaluation of malinowski
A
- participant observation which from a positivist view makes the data unreliable and unable to be generalised to society
16
Q
what does Parsons argue the function of religion is
A
religion helps people with life crises by offering comfort, avoiding anomie
17
Q
what does religion answer according to parsons
A
the big questions such as ‘‘what happens to us after death?’’
18
Q
what does Malinowski argue the function of religion is
A
religion serves a psychological function, dealing with situations where the outcome is important yet its uncontrollable/ uncertain
19
Q
who did Malinowski study
A
a trobriand tribe who would fish in open sea which was dangerous, they would do rituals beforehand to decrease anxiety/ unify the group/ offer comfort
20
Q
what does religion give people a sense of according to malinowski
A
control and comfort
21
Q
what is the marxist argument of religion
A
it is promoted by the ruling class to pass on dominant ideology, provides the working class with a false conscious
22
Q
religion is an instrument…
A
of control
23
Q
how does religion legitimise inequality
A
through teaching that suffering is inevitable and you will be rewarded in the afterlife, heaven
24
Q
what does Marx say religion is
A
an opium of the masses
25
what does an opium of the masses mean
religion cushions people from the bad things in life and prevents the working class from rebelling
26
who echoed marx
Lenin
27
what does Lenin call religion
a spiritual gin
28
what does a spiritual gin mean
religion is used by the bourgeoisie to obscure the reality of capitalism
29
religious teachings which show the lack of importance of money
''it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than a rich man to enter the kingdom of god''
30
how does religion teach that work is normal
through teachings such as Jesus being a carpenter etc
31
evaluation of Marxism
1.outdated, society is more secular therefore religion doesnt have the same control
2. many religious texts criticise the greedy which may encourage people to see the ruling class as ungodly
32
what do feminists argue the role of religion is
to reproduce the patriarchy and keep women subordinate
33
what does de beauvoir argue
religion exploits and oppresses women encouraging women to be meek and put up with suffering
34
in what ways can religion reproduce the patriarchy
scriptures/ teachings
ceremonies/ practices
organisations
35
examples of patriarchy in scriptures and teachings (3)
women are frequently portrayed as temptresses to mens worship e.g. adam and eve
women are often given the nurturing and caring role as well as childbearing (reinforcing gender stereotypes)
rules on abortion/ divorce etc restricting womens life choices
36
examples of patriarchy in ceremonies and practices
1. women and men worshipping separately
2. menstruation and pregnancy are treated as impure or ungodly (menstruating women being unable to touch the Koran)
37
examples of patriarchy in organisations
1. most religions do not have females in senior positions with female priests only being allowed since 1994 (church of england)
2. women expected to serve teas and cakes
38
what does armstrong argue
the exclusion of women in priesthood exemplifies women's marginalisation in religious and social life
39
how does El Sawaawi's argument differ
religion isn't the direct cause of women's subordination but a patriarchal society which reshaped religion
40
female genital mutilation
cultures using religion to justify this despite no holy texts mentioning it.
it is non-medical extremely dangerous and has over 200 million victims
41
how do many feminists see the hijab (El Sadaawi)
as a tool for oppresion
42
why does Woodhead disagree with El Sadaawi's opinion of the hijab
she claims it can be empowering for women, a tool of freedom and liberation
43
evaluation of feminism
1. ethnocentrism, caution when interpreting other cultures
2. not all religions, Armstrong argues early religions placed women at the centre
44
who studies religion as a force for change
Weber
45
who did Weber study
calvinist protestant religion
46
what 2 things did calvinists believe in
asceticism and predestination
47
how did calvinists stimulate capitalism
they looked for signs they were gong to heaven through business success and as they didn't believe in the luxuries of life they would reinvest into their business, making more money
48
why does Kautsy disagree with Weber
they argue capitalism came first and Calvinists used it to prove they were part of the 'elect'
49
why are eastern religions less likely to cause social change
as they believe in harmony with the world, living the middle way etc.
50
which two groups did Bruce study to examine social change
the civil rights movement and the new Christian right
51
how did religion support the civil rights movement
churches provided places of sanctuary from white violence
they shamed whites by appealing to Christian values ''love thy neighbour''
52
why were the civil rights movement successful
widespread belief and support
a clear wanted outcome
political advocates
peaceful protests
53
why are the new Christian right not supportive
lacks widespread support and faces strong opposition
many Americans dont want politics and religion intertwined
54
evaluation of Bruce
1. the civil rights movement although had religious support, was a secular movement
2. the trump election and presidency of 2025
55
what does Engels argue
religion can prevent social change and challenge the status quo through preaching liberation from slavery and misery etc
56
who argues the principle of hope
Bloch
57
what does Bloch mean by the principle of hope
religion can have a dual character, inhibiting change and inspiring protests
religion is a utopia, images of this helps people see what needs to be changed in current society, boosted by political organisations
58
who argues liberation theory
Maduro
59
liberation theory example
Romero, archbishop of San Salvador used his platform to speak out against the government, denouncing state killings and torture
he also set up schemes to help victims
60
what is hegemony
beliefs that are dominant
61
what does Gramsci argue
agrees with Engels and religion having a dual character
hegemony is never guaranteed, its always possible for the working class to develop alternative views (counter hegemony)
62
what does Wilson define secularisation as
the process in which religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance
63
what percentage attended sunday church 2020
4%
64
what are some examples of secularisation
Christmas being less religious
increase in divorce
marriage becoming less religious
decline in church attendance
65
what has happened to religious affiliation
between 1983-2018 those identifying as Christian has decreased by 40%
66
what has religion been replaced by
science and rationality
67
Bruce's technological worldview
religion only survives when technology is no longer effective, a last resort for many
68
why has religion declined, PARSONS
structural differentiation
religion has become smaller and specialised causing disengagement
lost roles means a loss in influence over laws etc
69
why has religion declined, BRUCE
privatisation
religion is a choice confined to the home and family therefore rituals and symbols have lost their meanings
70
why has social and cultural diversity led to secularisation and who argues it
BRUCE
soc and geo mobiliy breaks up communities
small communities became larger and looser knit, becoming diverse
71
Bruce and diversity (secularisation)
diversity has led to plausability of beliefs being undermined, not all religions can be correct
72
Berger and religious diversity
there has been a breakdown of the sacred canopy, society is no longer unified
73
what two trends does bruce identify against secularisation
1. cultural defense- religion is the focal point for defense of identity in hostile environments
2. cultural transition- provides support and community
74
what does Bruce argue religion survives for
identity and social functions rather than supernatural
75
who argues secularisation from within
Herberg and Bruce
76
what is secularisation from within
religious institutions are so weak they don't set trends, they follow them e.g. LGBTQ+
77
what does bruce mean when he says theres a trend towards practical relativism
theres an acceptance of others holding different beliefs
78
what is general evaluation of secularisation
1. religion isn't declining, simply changing (believing without belonging)
2.religious diversity may increase participation
79
who argues believing without belonging
Davie
80
what does it mean to be believing without belonging
you believe in god yet don't have to be part of an organisation
religion isn't declining just becoming privatised
81
who argues vicarious religion
Davie
82
what is vicarious religion
a smull number of people practice religion for the larger group to benefit (marriage/ baptisms)
83
who argues about spiritual shoppers
Hervieu Leger
84
what is spiritual shopping
people can pick and choose parts of religions they like
religion isnt as strict or traditional
85
what is a criticism of Davie
1. Bruce argues that if people arent invested at church they wont be at home
2. Voas and Crockett argue believing and belonging are falling at a similar rate
86
how has globalisation impacted religion
ideas can be dispersed on the internet e.g. televangelism
87
what two forms of religion are there according to Helland
religion online and online religion
88
what is religion online
top down communication which the religion may use to address members e.g. the church having a website
89
what is online religion
a cyber religion which has no existence outside the internet
90
who argues religious consumerism
Lyon
91
what is religious consumerism
globalisation has made religion move into the consumerism sphere
people have become religious consumers, choosing which parts of religion they like
92
who argues self religions and the new age
Lyon
93
what is self religions and the new age
argues we are in a process of re-enchantment with a growth of unconventional beliefs and spirituality
94
what kind of revolution is occurring according to sociologists
a spiritual one
95
what does religion mean (Heelas and Woodhead)
self sacrifice, belonging to an organisation, conforming to external authority
96
what does spirituality mean (Heelas and Woodhead)
personal development, connecting with inner self
97
what two groups are there according to Heelas and Woodhead
the congregational domain and the holistic milieu
98
what is the congregational domain
traditional and evangelical Christianity
99
the holistic milieu
spirituality and the new age
100
what three things did heelas and woodhead find
1.new age movements are growing
2.tradition religions are declining
3.evangelical are more successful as they focus on spiritual heeling and growth
101
who argues against Heelas and Woodhead
Bruce and Glendinning
102
how doe Bruce and Glendinning evaluate Heelas and Woodhead
they argue that people who dabble in meditation/ horoscopes etc dont have serious commitment
103
who argues existential security theory
Norris and Inglehart
104
what does existential security theory argue
secularisation only occurs in countries where a safe/ comfortable life is the norm
105
what do norris and inglehart argue
religion provides confidence and predictability in a threatening and uncertain world
nearly all prosperous and advanced societies are more secular
106
why is the united states an anomaly to existential security theory
as they are one of the richest countries in the world yet have high levels of religious participation
107
why may the united states be broadly religious (existential security theory)
having to pay for healthcare
inadequate welfare
high levels of poverty
108
evaluation of existential security theory
1 weakness 1 strength
1. ignore the positive side of why people may use religion
2. Gill and Lunderguaarde found countries which spend more on welfare have less religious participation
109
what is fundamentalism
a set of religious beliefs which claim to go back to the fundamentals of religion, claiming other versions have become watered down
110
who do fundamentalist groups cause conflicts with
other groups and varying versions of their own religion
111
what are some examples of fundamentalist groups
the new christian right
ISIS
112
what are some characteristics of fundamentalist groups
us vs. them mentality
aggressive and extreme
authorative sacred texts
oppose modernisation
113
what does bruce argue the causes of fundamentalism are
socialization (social life becoming fragmented)
rationalization (phenomena being explained by science not belief)
differentiation (religious life being separated from politics)
114
why has modernisation caused an increase in fundamentalism
it challenges the authority of religion and the world changing threatens the reproduction of their religion
115
who agrees with fundamentalism being caused by globalisation
Davie, Giddens and Bauman
116
what does Giddens argue about fundamentalism
fundamentalism contrasts with cosmopolotanism
117
what does Bauman argue about fundamentalism
it is a response to modernity which brings risk/ freedom of choice/ uncertainty
118
why may people join fundamentalist's groups
power and control
misogyny
aligns with their views
119
what does Castells argue
2 reactions to modernity
resistance identity
project identity
120
what is resistance identity (castells)
those threatened retreat to fundamentalism
121
what is project identity
embracing and engaging in social movements
122
what is an evaluation of fundamentalism
1. fixated on fundamentalisms, ignores globalisations impact on non-fundamentalist groups
2.not always a clear divide between fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism
3. Davie and secular fundamentalism
123
why does Bruce believe fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions
God's will is outlined in a singular authorative text which can only be interpreted one way
124
who argues secular fundamentalism
Davie
125
what is phase one of secular fundamentalism
science and enlightenment had an optimistic and secular belief
it undermined religious certainties
126
what is phase two of secular fundamentalism
a loss of faith in secular enlightenment (science)
therefore people are fearful of growing religiosity
127
what is secular fundamentalisms a reaction to
religious challenges
128
what is an example of secular fundamentalism
2004, France banning school pupils from wearing religious symbols
(Ansell argues this is cultural racism)
129
who argues the clash of civilisation
Huntington
130
what does huntington argue
islam is to blame, religious differences create hostile environments which are hard to overcome as they are rooted in history
131
what does huntington argue about the west
the west is under threat and needs to reassert itself as a liberal-democratic Christian civilistaion
132
who disagrees with huntington
Casanova, Horrie and Chippindale
133
what does Casanova argue against Huntington
that they ignore divides within the same religion
134
what does Horrie and Chippindale argue against Huntington
sees the theory as grossly misleading that portrays the whole of islam as the enemy
135
what impact has globalisation had on india
there has been a growth in the middle class increasing the gap between rich and poor
136
how has India gone against the trend
they have become technologically developed but this has pushed more towards religion
137
how many billionaires are there in India
119
138
why does Nanda believe more people have become religious
hinduism gives a divine stamp of approval to their activities with businesses adopting business friendly versions of hinduism
139
what else did nanda find
a growing sense of Indian nationalisation
140
features of a church
TROELTSCH
hierarchal and bureaucratic
positive and tolerant / open membership
a monopoly over the truth
closely connected to the state
conservative
141
features of a sect
TROELTSCH
no hierarchy, just a charismatic leader
intolerant/ closed membership
claim a monopoly over the truth
demand total commitment
reject the state, WALLIS world rejecting
142
features of a denominations
NIEBUHR
some heirarchy but not as much as a church
tolerant to other religions etc
do not claim a monopoly
some level of commitment
143
features of a sec
WEBER
no hierarchy/ no links to the state
tolerant of other beliefs
focus on self commitment
focus on self-fulfillment and success
144
what is an example of a church
roman catholic church
145
what is an example of a sect
peoples temple, Jim Jones
900+ people dying
146
what is an example of a denomination
Methodism
147
examples of cults
meditation
yoga
scientology?
148
evaluation typologies of organisations
1. many organisations can fit multiple typologies and can change over time
2. Bruce argues we have religious pluralism which means churches cant claim a monopoly
3. Robertson, are churches really close to the state in contemporary society?
149
what three reasons are there for the growth of sects
marginality, relative deprivation and social change
150
who argues about marginality
Weber
151
what is the marginality argument
world rejecting sects appear to those who are marginalized
this is because it offers the 'theodicy of deprivilege' which offers explanations etc. from suffering (may also provide status and support)
152
what is an evaluation of marginalisation (Weber)
1. BARKER studies the unifcation church which found they were not marginalised and were from happy, affluent backgrounds
153
evaluation of the evaluation of marginalisation... yay
1. WALLIS argues those in the unification church were marginalised as many were drug- users, hippies and drop outs
154
what three sociologists argue relative deprivation
wallis, stark and bainbridge
155
what does wallis argue on relative deprivation
middle classes may feel spiritually deprived in which sects provide community and belonging
156
what does stark and Bainbridge argue on relative deprivation
when middle class members begin changing the church's beliefs, deprived members will break away to safeguard the original message
157
who argues sects and social change
wilson and bruce
158
what does wilson argue about social change
NRM's offer certainty, structure and security during social change
159
what does bruce argue about social change and sects
sects and cults are a response to modernisation and secularisation
160
what percentage of women compared to men say their religious
55% to 44%
161
what are some reasons women are more likely to be religious
1. paid work
2. childbearing/ socialisation
3. women and the new age
162
who argues women and paid work
Bruce
163
women and paid work
women are less likely to take up paid work and religion has moved into the private sphere
164
link to bruce and women (paid work)
WOODHEAD, churches have become feminised which suggests secularisation has impacted men more, religion becoming private and appealing to women moew
165
who argues women and childbearing/ socialisation
Davie
166
women and childbearing/ socialisation
womens expressive role is a good match with religious faith
childbearing brings women closer to the ultimate questions
167
women and the new age is argued by...
Bruce
168
women and the new age
where men seek to achieve, women seek to feel. new age movements put emphasis on the expressive role
169
evaluation of women and religiosity
1. women may attend church for other reasons e.g. friendships/ support
2. they may see it as socially desirable and therefore answer desirably
3. some sects can be extremely male dominated
4. women are sold a false ideology
170
who argues women are more likely to join a sect
stark and bainbridge
171
what do sects offer compensation for (women)
1. organismic deprivation
2. ethical deprivation
3. social deprivation
172
what does bruce argue ethnic minorities use religion for
cultural transition and cultural defence
173
what is cultural transition
religion assists the process of immigration, it is a sense of normality in a country with completely differing values traditions etc
174
what is cultural defence
using religion to defend against hostility, a safe community away from racism
175
what does davie suggest that religious identity provides
a sense of belonging
176
what are some reasons Bird suggests ethnic minorities are more religious
greater levels of religiosity in countries of origin, religion providing community, cultural defence and religious socialisation
177
what two options can immigrants choose according to Chryssides
apostasy and accommodation
178
evaluation of ethnic minorities and religiosity
1. statistics, levels of agnosticism and atheism may be disguised as it may be seen as deviant
2. cultural defence/ transition shows religiosity is down to other social factors not religious belief
179
what are some reasons older people are more religious
1. more aware of their own mortality
2. socialised to being religious
3. Bruce and religious education
4. Voas and Crockett
180
why are younger people more likely to be less religious
1. religious institutions are unattractive/ boring
2. greater competition
181
Bruce, age and religiosity
a huge decline in religious education e.g. Sunday schools claiming they will be extinct by 2016
182
Voas and Crockett, religiosity and age
1. the ageing affect, become more interested in the afterlife etc.
2. the period/ cohort affect
3. secularisation, generations become more secular
183
evaluation of religiosity and age
1. the census isn't accurate with many using it as a joke (Jedi knights)
184
