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Logical Fallacies > Relevance > Flashcards

Relevance Flashcards

1
Q

Appeal to Emotion

A

argumentum ad passiones

an Appeal to Emotion attempts to move the argument from the rational to the emotional, and exploit the audience’s feelings to accept a conclusion

A claims P
P evokes emotion
therefore P is true

“Look at this poor pitiful child - look at him! - look at his sad eyes and quivering lips… look and tell me that my suggestion we buy him every toy in this shop is a bad one.”

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2
Q

Appeal to Emotion // Appeal to Fear

A

argumentum ad metum

elicit support for a proposition by evoking fear in the audience - often fear at the alternative

either P or Q
Q is frightening
therefore P

“If God exists then so does hell, and hell is horrendous, so we should believe that God does not exist.”

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3
Q

Appeal to Emotion // Appeal to Flattery

A

argumentum ad superbiam
Apple Polishing
Brown Nosing

showering the audience with praise, both to dispose them to accept your proposition, and temporarily blind their reason

A claims P
A is flattering
therefore P is true

“Many people would overlook this, but I know a man with your great perception realises that this conclusion must be true”

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4
Q

Appeal to Emotion // Appeal to Pity

A

argumentum ad misericordiam
‘the sob story’

exploiting feelings of guilt and pity to convince an audience of a proposition’s truth

A claims P
P evokes pity
therefore, P is true

“Look at this weak, pitiful man. Can you really believe he’s capable of committing this crime?

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5
Q

Appeal to Emotion // Appeal to Spite

A

argumentum ad odium

A claims P
P evokes spite
therefore P is true

“Why should we say the persecution of the Jews is against the state? Have their kind not betrayed the state, century upon century, through perfidious treachery?”

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6
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Authority

A

a fallacious appeal to an expert source as rendering the conclusion necessarily true/false

appeals to authority can be valid if they meet the appropriate criteria

“The Chinese government claims they are not oppressing the Uighurs, therefore we can assume they aren’t.”

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7
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Authority // False Authority

A

Appeal to False Authority

an appeal to parties with no legitimate claim to authority

A claims P
A cites B as an authority
B is not a valid authority
therefore P is true

“A: Freud concluded that there was no God.
B: Freud is a (controversial?) authority on psychology, not Philosophy of Religion or Theology.”

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8
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Authority // False Authority // Appeal to Hearsay

A

an appeal to second or third-hand sources of authority - the original source may be valid, but distorted through multiple transmissions

“My friend Dave knows a guy who’s cousin’s best friend’s dad works at the power plant who said they nearly had a melt-down last week.”

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9
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Authority // False Authority // False Attribution

A

appealing to a source that is irrelevant, unqualified, biased or fabricated

A claims P
A cites B as an authority
B is a poor source
therefore, P is true

“I read in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion that the Jews eat babies! They are clearly bad people!”

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10
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Authority // False Authority // Quoting out of Context

A

Contextomy
Quote Mining

truncating or otherwise editing statements to impose a different meaning upon them, often to confer expert support of a conclusion

“A: this is a terrifically awful movie.
B: this is a terrific… movie”

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11
Q

FALLACIES OF EXTERNAL VALIDATION // Appeal to Popularity

A

argumentum ad populum
Bandwagon

judging the truth-value of a proposition as necessarily dependent on its popularity and acceptance by others

P is widely accepted
Therefore, P is true

P is widely accepted
Therefore, P is false

“10,000 customers of new Rimmel Hair Creme Xtrem’ can’t be wrong!”

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12
Q

FALLACIES OF SUBJECTIVITY // Argument from Incredulity

A

Appeal to Common Sense
Personal Incredulity
Divine Fallacy

a proposition is fallaciously believed false because it contradicts the subject’s ability to comprehend, imagine or believe

A cannot comprehend P
therefore P is false

“I can’t believe that Donald Trump would lie to me, so if he says the election was a steal then it must be”

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13
Q

FALLACIES OF SUBJECTIVITY // Mind Projection Fallacy

A

projecting one’s subjective experience of an object onto the real world, and the object itself

A experiences P as having subjective property x
therefore P inherently has property x

“What do you mean, you don’t like chocolate? Chocolate is delicious, that’s the whole point of it!”

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14
Q

FALLACIES OF SUBJECTIVITY // Mind Projection Fallacy // Psychologist’s Fallacy

A

assuming your subjective interpretation of an event or another mind matches the objective nature of the event/mind

I interpret event x as P
therefore, event x is P

“I know that I would only go out with Michelle if I was very desperate, so I can conclude that David must be feeling desperate”

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15
Q

FALLACIES OF SUBJECTIVITY // Wishful Thinking

A

the fallacy of presenting a claim as true/false, on the grounds that one hopes/wishes it is/isn’t

A hopes P is true
therefore P is true

“I know Santa Clause is real, because it want him to be - more than anything!”

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16
Q

Genetic Fallacy

A

judging a proposition based on its origins/past (genesis)

P used to be be P’
Therefore, P is true/false

P originates from P’
Therefore, P is true/false

‘Michael must be wrong - he used to be illiterate, you know.’

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17
Q

Genetic Fallacy // Etymological Fallacy

A

insisting a word must be defined by its original/historical meaning

“A; He must be wealthy, since he’s a gentleman.
B: His manners speak nothing to his income…
A: ‘Gentleman’ means landowner, you fool!”

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18
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem

A

‘to the man/person’

a rebuttal addressing the arguer rather than their argument

A claims P
A possesses negative property X
therefore P is false

“You can’t trust Juan - he’s a shifty Mexican!”

19
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Appeal to Accomplishment

A

Appeal to Ignorance
Courtier’s Reply

dismissing an argument on the ground the arguer lacks expertise/accomplishment/authority in the subject

A claims P
A lacks expertise on P
therefore P is false

“John’s critique of Communism can hardly be taken seriously - he’s never studied political science at a serious level.”

20
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Circumstantial

A

Appeal to Bias
Appeal to Motive

assertion that a given conclusion is reached due to the arguer’s personal bias and circumstances

A claims P
A is biased in favour of P
Therefore, P is false

“A: Higher taxes on the rich are bad for the economy.
B: You only say that because you’re rich, and you don’t want to pay higher taxes!”

21
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Guilt by Association

A

Appeal to Bad Company

criticizing a source/argument on the basis of their connection to a guilty third-party/group

A claims P
A is associated with the negative C
Therefore, P is false

“A: I think Beyonce is overrated.
B: You can’t be trusted, your friends all have terrible musical taste.”

22
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Tone Policing

A

Appeal to Bad Tone

criticizing the emotion/tone an argument was expressed in/with, instead of addressing the argument itself

A claims P
A expresses P in a bad tone
therefore P is false

“A: It’s absolutely OUTRAGEOUS that Hamilton is considered superior to Schumacher! I am SO ANGRY that people are overlooking the engineering advances and field imbalances that have favoured Hamilton!

B: Calm down. How can anyone in this state be taken seriously? If my opponent wants to change anyone’s mind, he first needs to find his own!”

23
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Traitorous Critic

A

argumentum ergo decedo
Appeal to Treason

an Ad Hominem whereby a criticism of an in-group is dismissed as treason to the in-group, often concluding with an invitation to leave

A claims P
P is ‘treasonous’
Therefore, P is false

“A: This country needs to improve it’s education system.
B: If you hate it here so much, why don’t you move somewhere else?”

24
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Tu Quoque

A

Appeal to Hypocrisy
‘you also’

a response to a critical argument, in which the second party accuses the first of hypocrisy regarding the argument

A claims P
P is contradictory to A’s past actions
therefore P is false

“A: North Korea is guilty of human rights abuses.
B: You can’t speak, the West is guilty of abuses too.”

25
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Tu Quoque // Two Wrongs make a Right

A

can include any instance whereby one wrongdoing is supposedly justified by another (when fallacious)

“Somebody stole my dog, so it’s okay for me to steal a dog in turn.”

26
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // Ad Hominem // Abusive

A

an ad hominem that resorts to simple insults, name-calling and personal attacks

“My opponent would have you believe that 2 plus 2 equals 4. My opponent, however, is a brainless moron who should be locked in a cattle shed.”

27
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // VIRTUOUS PHILOSOPHER // APPEAL TO RICHES // Fallacy of Poverty

A

argumentum ad Lazarum

an argument is true because the arguer is poor

A claims P
A is poor
therefore P is true

“The poor are the salt of the earth, they live humbly, without the blinding influence of wealth; therefore we can believe them when they tell us that black people should definitely go back to their own country.”

28
Q

Genetic Fallacy // APPEAL TO THE ARGUER // VIRTUOUS PHILOSOPHER // APPEAL TO RICHES // Fallacy of Wealth

A

argumentum ad crumenam

an argument is true because the arguer is wealthy

A claims P
A is rich
therefore P is true

“Some of the most successful people in the country agree that P is true - so you should too!”

29
Q

Genetic Fallacy // Appeal to History // Appeal to Novelty

A

argumentum novitatis

the premature belief that a newer proposition, element etc. is superior to its antecedents by virtue of being recent

P is recent
Therefore, P is true

P and Q
P is more recent than Q
Therefore, P is superior to Q

“The latest iPhone is surely the best ever!”

30
Q

Genetic Fallacy // Appeal to History // Appeal to Novelty // Chronological Snobbery

A

the belief that individuals and ideas from the past are inferior, less intelligent etc. and that only recent/current thought has virtue

“You can’t take your beliefs from a 2000 year-old book!”

31
Q

Genetic Fallacy // Appeal to History // Appeal to Tradition

A

a proposition is true/correct simply because it accords with tradition - it has historically been accepted as true

P is traditional
therefore P is true

“We don’t need the people of today telling us how to live - not when the people of yesterday already told us!”

32
Q

Ignoratio Elenchi

A

Irrelevant Conclusion

some other argument, likely related to the original, is argued instead of the original

A claims P
B discusses P’

‘is S allowed?’
‘it SHOULD be allowed, because…’

33
Q

Ignoratio Elenchi // Motte-and-Bailey Fallacy

A

a form of concept-swapping, where ambiguous concepts themselves (beyond mere words) are swapped in to influence justification

the ‘bailey’ is a controversial claim one makes, before retreating to the similar but more-defensible ‘motte’ - imputing the defence of the latter to the former

A claims P
B challenges P
A defends P’
therefore, P is true

A: I communicate with aliens.
B: That seems unlikely…
A: It’s a big universe, can you really prove aliens don’t exist?

34
Q

Ignoratio Elenchi // Strawman

A

a form of refutation, wherein one replaces the original argument with a similar, weaker one then proceeds to ‘knock it down’ - with the implication that the original is defeated

A claims P
B refutes P’
therefore P is false

“A: The death penalty is immoral.
B: Why do you want heinous criminals to get away with their crimes?”

35
Q

Ignoratio Elenchi // Strawman // Appeal to Ridicule

A

dismissing a proposition as ridiculous, often through mockery, sarcasm etc. such that the proposition appears contrary to common sense

A claims P
B paints P as ridiculous
Therefore, P is false

“A: I believe God exists.
B: You can’t seriously believe in a sky-daddy with a big white beard who likes listening to angels playing harps all day!”

36
Q

Is-Ought

A

violating the is-ought distinction, falsely assuming:

a) this is how things are, ergo how they should be
b) this is how things should be, ergo how they are

37
Q

Is-Ought // Appeal to Nature

A

a belief that nature or the natural is inherently good or bad, and that a proposition’s relation to nature affects its value

P is unnatural
Therefore, P is bad/good

P is natural
Therefore, P is bad/good

“There’s nothing wrong with murder - it’s a part of the natural word. It happens everyday out in the jungle!”

38
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Assertion

A

ipse dixit

claiming a proposition as true, without offering evidence

“It is the case that twelve cats, when combined, form a portal to the chthonic underworld. Now, as for preventing the inevitable rising of the Dark Lord Cthulu…”

39
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Assertion // Burden of Proof Fallacy

A

it is fallacious to present a bare assertion, and then insist the burden is on the opposition to disprove it

A claims P
A claims B must refute P

“A: I think the moon is made of cheese. Prove me wrong!
B: I don’t have to prove you wrong - you have to prove yourself right!”

40
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Assertion // Proof by Assertion

A

Argument from Repetition

P is asserted repeatedly
therefore, P is true

"P
P
P
P
therefore, P is true"
41
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Assertion // Proof by Assertion // Argumentum Ad Nauseum

A

argumentum ad infinitum

arguing to the point of the opponent’s boredom/frustration

"A: x is true.
B: x is false.
A: x is true.
B: It's false, I tell you.
A: x is true.
B: Why do you even think that?
A: x is true.
B: I give up, I'm going home.
A: No-one has refuted x!"
42
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Refutation

A

argumentum ad lapidem
Argument to the Stone
Pooh-Pooh

the fallacy of dismissing a claim as false/absurd/beneath attention without offering justification for the dismissal

A claims P
B dismisses P

“John: I think Metallica are the best band.
Michael: That’s an absurd opinion.
John: Why is it absurd?
Michael: Please; this topic is unworthy of consideration.”

43
Q

MISSING PREMISES // Bare Refutation // Thought-Terminating Cliche

A

‘I’m entitled to my opinion’

The language of non-thought; a move to avoid asserting or refuting an argument, to opt-out

A claims P
B opts-out

“I’m entitled to my opinion”
“That’s just your opinion’
“It is what it is”

Logical Fallacies (8 decks)

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