Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
Evolutionary explanation of partner preference - behaviours and characteristics that increase reproductive success are passed on and others discarded
2
Q
What will successful behaviours and characteristics increase the chances of?
A
Survival of our gene pool
3
Q
What does anisogamy refer to?
A
Differences in sex cells (gametes) leading to different behaviours in males and females
4
Q
What are male gametes?
A
Sperm - very small and highly mobile, continuously produced, don’t take a lot of energy, unlimited supply
5
Q
What are female gametes?
A
Ova - limited supply, have at puberty total number they will ever produce, limited age range to produce offspring, huge investment
6
Q
What is intra sexual selection?
A
Members of the same sex competing for members of the opposite sex (USED BY MALES)
7
Q
What is inter sexual selection?
A
Members of different sexes choosing a partner from the opposite sex (USED BY FEMALES)
8
Q
Why may females be more choosy over their partner selection?
A
Greater investment in time and commitment and the need for ongoing support for her child
9
Q
Why would a females limited supply of ova have more serious consequences?
A
Limited! Needs to ensure survival of her gene pool
10
Q
What type of males will females choose?
A
Physical health and strength but also be committed to extended period of child growing up - these traits will be carried down to next generation
11
Q
What is the best way for men to ensure survival of their gene pool?
A
Quantity over quality - unlimited supply and time frame and relative lack of responsibility for the child
12
Q
Why do males need to make sure they are chosen?
A
‘Picky’ females, need to be fit enough to compete with other males and to protect their female from other men
13
Q
What has the competition between men lead to?
A
Dimorphism - males are bigger and stronger than females and therefore are likely to carry on this characteristic
14
Q
What sort of females do males show a preference to?
A
Fertile females, youthful indicators such as hip-waist ratio
15
Q
What is a strength of anisogamy?
A
Buss 1989 surveyed 10000 adults in 33 countries asking questions relating to partner preference. Found females valued resource related characteristics and males valued god looks and preferred younger partners
16
Q
What is a strength of selection strategies?
A
Clark and Hatfield’s study - male and female psychology students ‘will you go to bed with me tonight?’ not 1 female agreed compared to 75% of men, supporting idea females are choosier
17
Q
What research shows male preferences correspond with evolutionary theory?
A
Singh 1993 2002 - studied waist hip ratio found overall preference of 0.7 - wider hips and narrower waist, signal they are fertile but not currently pregnant
18
Q
How does Waynforth and Dunbar 1995 support differences for partner preferences?
A
Lonely hearts ad’s found woman more than men offered physical attractiveness and indicators of youth, men offered resources more than woman did
19
Q
What is one weakness of sexual selection strategies?
A
Partner preference is also influenced by social and cultural factors, such as social norms, availability of contraception, women’s greater role in workplace MEANING WOMAN MAY NOT BE AS RELIANT ON MALES FOR RESOURCES SO CHOICE OF MATE MAY CHANGE
20
Q
What is another weakness of sexual selection strategies?
A
Cannot explain relationships such as homosexual explanations, woman being older than men etc
21
Q
What are the 3 factors affecting attraction?
A
Self disclosure, physical attractiveness and filter theory
22
Q
What is self disclosure?
A
Telling the other person sensitive information about ourselves (2 ELEMENTS BREADTH AND DEPTH)
23
Q
What does sharing secrets often lead to?
A
Reciprocal self-disclosure, through this we build trust and deepen our bond
24
Q
What did Altman and Taylor devise to describe how the relationship develops?
A
Social penetration theory - involves gradual reciprocal exchange of increasingly intimate information - conveying trust, expectation the other partner will reveal sensitive info in return, penetrating each other’s lives and develop a greater understanding
25
What are 2 strengths of self disclosure theory?
Supporting research - Sprecher and Hendrick 2004 studied homosexual couples and found correlation between several measures of satisfaction and self disclosure. Laurenceau 2005 diary entries found self disclosure linked to higher levels of intimacy
Practical applications - therapy to help couples improve communication - supported by Hass and Stafford 1998 who found 57% of gay couples aid self disclosure was main way they deepened and maintained relationships
26
What are 2 weaknesses of self disclosure theory?
Cultural differences, bredth and depth not the same in all cultures. Tang 2013 found people in USA disclosed more about sexual thoughts and feelings than in China
Correlation VS causation - much of research cannot establish cause and effect between satisfaction and how much they disclose
27
What type of theories can explain why physical attractiveness is important in relationships?
Evolutionary theories
28
What did Hamilton's and Zuk propose attractiveness may be a signal of?
Honest signal of health and good genes
29
What did Shackleford and Larsen 1997 find about physical attractiveness?
People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive, genetic disorders or illness tend to compromise symmetry so if you are symmetrical you have good genes
30
Explain the sexy sons hypothesis...
Fisher proposed that a female is drawn to attractive males because then she will have attractive sons
31
What have psychologists suggested about being drawn to baby like (neotenous) faces?
It triggers a protective instinct which aids survival, bonding and reproduction particularly in females
32
What did McNulty 2008 find about physical attractiveness?
Not only important at the beginning of a relationship but for several years
33
What is the halo effect?
Cognitive bias - tendency to assign characteristics to people based on knowledge we already know - if a person has a few positive characteristics we assume they have more
34
What is a strength of the halo effect?
Research evidence to support concept - Palmer and Peterson 2012 physically attractive people rated as more politically knowledgeable - obvious implications for political process
35
What is a weakness of the halo effect?
Individual differences - Towhey 1979 - rated how much they liked a person based on photo - people who scored low almost ignored physical attractiveness as a factor
36
What was the study we replicated to support the halo effect?
Saladin 1988 showed photos of 8 men and asked how likely it was that they would commit murder and armed robbery - attractive men deemed less likely
37
When do you use a Mann-Whitney U test?
Looking for a difference between 2 groups
Independent groups
Level of measurement is ORDINAL as scores are on a scale
38
Explain the matching hypothesis...
Proposed by Walster - suggests people end up being attracted to partners similar to themselves, each individual has beliefs about themselves and compromises them with a potential partner - we do not want to be rejected by someone 'out of our league'
39
What is one strength of the matching hypothesis?
Supported by research evidence - Feingold 1988 - meta analysis of 17 studies found significant correlation between ratings of attractiveness in married couples
Mirstein 1972 - dating couples rate themselves and then independent people to rate them - people who were dating had scores that correlated
40
What is one weakness of the matching hypothesis?
Contradictory evidence - Taylor 2011 - online daters sought meetings with people who were more physically attractive than them - seemed they did not consider their own attractiveness
41
What does the matching hypothesis seem to have?
Face validity as it is noticeable when couples do not seemed matched on physical attractiveness - young women with very older men
42
Explain the filter theory...
Kerckhoff and Davis 1962 devised a theory to explain how relationships form and develop - 3 main factors acting as filters to narrow down range of partner choice
43
What is a field of availables and field of desirables?
A - entire set of potential partners
| D - partners you are attracted too
44
What is the 1st level of the filter theory?
Social demography - filtered out on basis of age, location, social class, religion etc
AFFECTED BY INTERNET DATING - EASIER TO MEET PEOPLE
45
What does homogamy mean?
1st level of filter theory produces this - more likely to form relationship with someone socially or culturally similar
46
What is the 2nd level of the filter theory?
Similarity in attitudes - K and D found this was important in couples who had been together for less than 18 months - need to agree on basics, encouraging greater understanding leading to self disclosure
47
What is the 3rd level of the filter theory?
Complementarity - ability to meet each others needs such as characteristics other one lacks 'opposites attract'
K and D found this is important in long term relationships - adding depth
48
What is 1 strength of filter theory?
FACE VALIDITY
Winch 1958 supported idea key factors differ in stages of relationship - evidence of similarities in early stages of relationships - echos idea that complimentarity is more important when older
49
What are 2 weaknesses of filter theory?
Online dating reduced importance of social demographic variables - filter not work in same way
Assuming wrong direction of causality - Anderson 2003 found partners became more similar in emotional responses over time (emotional convergence), Davis and Rusbult 2001 found the same BRINGING SIMILARITIES IN LINE OVER TIME NOT INITIALLY
50
What are the 4 theories of romantic relationships?
```
Social exchange theory
Equity theory
Rusbult's investment model
Duck's phase model
(ALL ECONOMICAL)
```
51
What is SET (Thibault and Kelly) concerned with?
Profit level - weigh up relative rewards an costs and the more profit the more satisfied we are
52
What is the minimax principle? (SET)
Maximise rewards and minimise costs (BOTH OF THESE ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE AND COULD CHANGE OVER TIME IN A RELATIONSHIP)
53
What is an opportunity cost? (SET)
While we are investing time and effort into one relationship we cannot in others - Blau 1964 stated relationships can be expensive in different ways
54
What are the 2 ways you measure profit in romantic relationships according to SET?
Comparison level - how much profit we expect depending on experiences in previous relationships and social norms
COULD BE AFFECTED BY SELF ESTEEM
Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) - Comparing current relationship with costs, rewards and profits we could expect in another relationship
DUCK 1994 SUGGESTED IF COSTS IN CURRENT RELATIONSHIP START TO OUTWEIGH REWARDS ALTERNATIVES BECOME MORE ATTRACTIVE
55
What are the 4 stages of relationship development according to SET?
Sampling stage - exploring rewards and costs and experimenting with them
Bargaining stage - start identifying, exchanging and negotiating rewards and costs
Commitment stage - rewards and costs become more predictable, rewards increase when becoming stable
Institutionalisation stage - norms of rewards and costs are firmly established
56
What are 4 weaknesses of the SET?
Romantic relationships do not continuously count costs and benefits - Clark and Mills 2011 suggest SET is more relatable to exchange relationships (colleagues)
Theory suggests we get dissatisfied when rewards are outweighed by costs but Argyle 1987 said we do not monitor this and don't pay attention until AFTER we feel dissatisfied
Ignores equity - SET all about C and R ignores this important factor
Difficult to measure some of the C and R SET talks about - also very subjective
57
What is equity theory concerned with?
FAIRNESS - goal is not for profit but to be fair, underbenefiting and overbenefitting cause inequity. BOTH PEOPLE CAN PUT DIFFERENT AMOUNTS INTO A RELATIONSHIP AND IT CAN STILL BE EQUITABLE (DISABLED PERSON)
58
What may couples consider over time in equity theory?
Rewards and costs but if they are balanced out in the long term it is considered fair
59
What can prolonged inequity lead to?
Dissatisfaction and eventual breakdown - in the beginning it is likely you put in more than you get out - if this continues over time it will become unattractive
60
What does recognising inequity provide a chance for?
The relationship to be saved by making adjustments (changing amount of input/output or perception of input and output) - provided 'loser' feels there is a chance and is motivated
61
What is the 1 strength of equity theory?
Supporting research evidence - Utne 1984 survey of 118 married couples, couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than couples who were under/over benefitting
62
What are 3 weaknesses of equity theory?
Cross cultrual differences Aumer-Ryan 2007 - collectivist culture were more satisfied when over benefiting rather than us who like equity
Individual differences - Huseman 1987 found some couples are happier giving/getting more
Contradictory research evidence - Berg and McQuinn 1986 found equity did NOT increase over time in their longitudinal study
63
What does Rusbults investment model emphasise?
Role of commitment is dependent on 3 factors -
Satisfaction level
Comparison with alternatives
Investment size
AS THE MODEL DEVELOPS ON SET 2/3 FACTORS ARE SIMILAR
64
What did Rusbult think about SET?
Not enough to explain commitment in a relationship or relationships would end as soon as cons outweighed pros or better option came along
65
What does Rusbult mean by investment?
ANYTHING A PERSON PUTS INTO A RELATIONSHIP THAT WILL BE LOST IF THEY LEAVE
Refers to the extent and importance of resources we put into the relationship
SHE FOUND WHEN PEOPLE DECIDE WHETHER TO END A RELATIONSHIP THEY ALSO CONSIDER HOW MUCH THEY HAVE INVESTED
66
What are the 2 types of investment according to Rusbult?
Intrinsic investments - resources we put directly in ourselves (money, emotion, gifts etc)
Extrinsic investments - resources arising from a relationship (mutual friends, children, memories)
67
What does Rusbult argue makes you stay in a relationship?
commitment rather than satisfaction - explains why people stay in a relationship if they are unhappy - work to repair so investments don't go to waste
68
What are the 5 relationship maintenance mechanisms?
Accommodation - promoting relationship
Willingness to sacrifice - putting partner first
Forgiveness - forgiving mistakes
Positive illusions - unrealistically positive views about partner
Ridiculing alternatives - negative views about others
69
What are 2 strengths of Rusbult's investment model?
Explains abusive relationships - Rusbult and Martz 1995 battered women at shelter, those most likely to return reported greatest investment
Supported by research evidence - Le and Agnew 2003 - 52 studies from 1970's-1999, 11000 participants from 5 countries. Where commitment was greater the relationship was more stable - TRUE FOR MEN AND WOMEN AND HOMOSEXUAL COUPLES
70
What are the 2 weaknesses of Rusbult's investment model?
Oversimplifies investment Goodfriend and Agnew 2008 - more to investment than just resources as at start you haven't invested much, investment in future plans
Based on correlational research - cause and effect that these factors CAUSE committment - may be the more committed you feel the more willing you are to invest so challenges validity
71
What does Ducks phase model focus on?
Relationship breakdowns - relationships are highly complex so so are breakups - applies to friendships as well - linear model
72
What is the 1st stage and threshold of Ducks model?
Intra-psychic phase
Focus' on cognitive processes, thinking about WHY you're not happy, weighing up pro's and cons, evaluating alternatives, planning for the future
THRESHOLD - 'I CAN'T STAND THIS ANYMORE'
73
What is the 2nd stage and threshold of Ducks model?
Dyadic phase
Discussion phase - confrontations occur - discuss for example imbalance of roles, lack of equity - anxiety may occur - 2 outcomes either break up or repair
THRESHOLD - 'I WOULD BE BETTER OFF WITHDRAWING' conclusion
74
What is the 3rd stage and threshold of Ducks model?
Social phase
Breakup is public - seek support - friends chose a side - they react differently (reassure, judgemental, push further to end or try and help repair)
THRESHOLD - 'I MEAN IT'
75
What is the 4th stage and threshold of Ducks model?
Grave dressing phase
Relationship is over - come up with a story to gain 'social credit' - put themselves in a good light - rewrite history to lessen feelings of loss
THRESHOLD - 'IT'S NOW INEVITABLE'
76
What is 1 strength of Ducks model?
real life applications - recognises different repair strategies - improve communication skills - economic benefits such as divorce rates - relationship counselling
77
What are 3 weaknesses of Ducks model?
Describes rather than explains like FATAL ATTRACTION HYPOTHESIS so questions usefulness
Incomplete model? Rollie and Duck 2006 say oversimplified so added 5th stage RESURRECTION PHASE ex partners turn towards future relationships using exp from older one
Based on retrospective data as unthetical to intervene in early stages of a breakdown - data may not be accurate or reliable questioning validity of findings
78
What are computer mediated relationships? (CMC)
Virtual relationships
79
What are the 2 main contrasting theories of CMC relationships using self disclosure?
Reduced cues theory
| Hyperpersonal model
80
What does the reduced cues theory suggest about CMC relationships?
Sproull and Keisler 1986 - CMC relationships are less effective than FTF ones as we depends on FTF interactions (non verbal cues and physical appearance)
81
What does the lack of cues in virtual relationships lead too?
De-individuation because it reduces people sense of individual identity encouraging disinhibition relating to others
VIRTUAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE THEREFORE MORE LIKELY TO INVOLVE BLUNT COMMUNICATION SO YOU'RE LESS LIKELY TO SELF DISCLOSE AS YOU ARE UNLIKELY TO WANT AN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP WITH SOMEONE WHO IS IMPERSONAL
82
What does the hyperpersonal model suggest about CMC relationships?
Walther 1996, 2011 - CMC relationships involve more self disclosure as they develop quickly and are more intense/intimate, they can also end quicker as excitement level isnt matched by trust level (Boom and Bust phenomenon of online relationships - Cooper and Sportolari 1997)
83
What is a key feature according to the hyperpersonal model of self disclosure in virtual relationships?
More time to manipulate online image - selective self presentation - easier to manipulate self disclosure to promote intimacy
84
What is anonymity according to the hyperpersonal model in virtual relationships?
Self disclosure is promoted because you are anonymous. Bargh et al 2002 suggest its like strangers on a train effect
85
What is absence of gating?
FTF relationships often fail to form because of barriers or gates (physical attractiveness, social anxiety) in CMC relationships there is the absence of these (MCKENNA AND BARGH 1999 SAY THIS IS A MASSIVE ADVANTAGE OF CMC RELATIONSHIPS)
people are free to create any kind of identity (second life), evident on The Voice TV show
86
What is a gate?
Any obstacle preventing individuals entering a relationship (physical unattractivness, stammer, social anxiety etc)
87
What do McKenna and Bargh 1999 argue is a huge advantage of CMC relationships?
Absense of gating - a relationship can develop to the point where self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper
THEIR STUDY LOOKED AT CCM BY LONELY PEOPLE, PEOPLE COULD EXPRESS THEMSELVES MORE THAN IN FTF, 70% OF ONLINE RELATIONSHIPS WITH THESE PEOPLE SURVIVED MORE THAN 2 YEARS, A HIGHER PROPORTION THAN RELATIONSHIPS FORMED IN OFFLINE WORLD
88
How does absense of gating work?
Refocuses attention on self-disclosure and away from what may be considered as superficial features
PARALLELS THE SHOW THE VOICE - MORE INTERESTED IN WHO YOU ARE THAT YOUR LOOKS
89
What does absense of gating mean people are able to do?
Create an online identity they could never manage in FTF relationships - secondlife, virtual avatars
90
What is one limitation of reduced cues theory in virtual relationships?
Lacks research support - theory is wrong to suggest nonverbal cues are missing, they are just different
Walther and Twidell 1995 - use different cues e/g taking a long time to reply, acrostics (LOL) and emojis substitute facial expressions
91
What research support is there for the hyperpersonal model in virtual relationships?
Whitty and Joinson 2000 - questions asked in online discussions tend to be very direct and intimate, FTF relationships involve 'small talk' - people are motivated to self-disclose more online
92
What is one limitation of CMC theories in virtual relationships?
Self-disclosure online is not a blanket phenomenon - depth depends on type of CMC being used, most people talking online know the person in FTF so are willing to self-disclose (Paine et al 2006)
Interesting case is online dating - people dont self disclose as they predict a FTF meeting will happen
Any theory that approaches CMC neglects its variety and therefore the explanation is not completely valid
93
What is attraction of celebrities?
Horton and Wohl defined this as an attachment where a fan knows all about the celeb yet the celeb does not even know they exist
94
What does para mean?
Resembling. They are relationships missing a key element as they are one-sided
95
Where were the levels of parasocial relationships established?
Celebrity attitude scale by McCutcheon 2002
| Used by Maltby et al in 2006 to develop levels
96
What is the 1st level of a parasocial relationship?
Entertainment-social
Least intense, celebs viewed as a source of entertainment, e.g friends may discuss fav celeb's most recent events
GILES 2002 found parasocial relationships a source of gossip in offices
97
What is the 2nd level of a parasocial relationship?
Intense-personal
Intermediate level reflecting greater personal involvement with a celeb, may include frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings, perhaps considering them your 'soulmate'
98
What is the 3rd level of a parasocial relationship?
Borderline-pathological
Strongest level, uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours, may include spending a large sum of money on celeb-related object or being willing to perform an illegal act on the celebs 'say-so'
99
What is the absorption addiction model by McCutcheon et al 2002?
Applies to individuals with a weak sense of identity - 2 aspects are;
Absorption - attention is entirely focused on the celeb and they find out everything they can about them
Addiction - craving greater and greater closeness to celeb and becomes delusional in thinking and behaviour, aims to achieve a full sense of identity and social role
100
Why is it thought people seek a parasocial relationship?
They have deficiencies in their own lives, allows them to escape from reality - more serious celeb involvment could be triggered by a stressful life event
101
Who supports the absorption addiction model for parasocial relationships?
Maltby 2005- investigated link between celeb worship and body image in both genders 14-16
Females reported intense-personal level with a female whose body shape they admired - link maybe be a precursor to eating disorders
Then made links between levels and personality characterisitics
E-S = extrovert
I-P = Neurotic
B-P = Psychotic
CONFIRMS PREDICTION OF CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVELS AND POOR PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING
102
What is a problem with attachment theory in parasocial relationships?
McCutcheon 2006 measured attachment styles and celeb related attitudes in 299 people - people with insecure attachments no more likely to form P-S relationship then secure attachments
Contradicts what attachment theory would predict as fails to support a central idea of the theory, questionning its validity
103
In parasocial realtionships, Schmid and Klimmt 2011 found people in different cultures had an obsession with Harry Potter, what does this tell us about the nature of parasocial relationships?
Can be universally applied
| May be an innate characterisitc
