Relationships Flashcards
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
What is meant by anisogamy
the reproductive material throughout ones entire life, including its worth
men: sperm is cheap as there is 100 million per ejaculation and can be reproduced within hours - can have sex with multiple people without consequence of wasted sperm
women: one egg per month - women have to be selective of who they let fertilise the egg - cannot afford to waste an egg
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline what is meant by sexual selection
type of natural selection where individuals with certain traits are more likely to find a sexual mate and reproduce
these traits make them more attractive to the opposite sex or better at competing with the same sex for mates
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Name the two types of sexual selection
intersexual selection
intrasexual selection
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline intersexual selection as a type of sexual selection
where one sex (usually female) selects mates based on certain desirable characteristics
quality over quantity approach - want a quality reproductive mate as opposed to multiple crappy reproductive mates
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline intrasexual selection as a type of sexual selection
involves competing with others of the same sex (usually males) for access to mates. e.g. fighting for dominance, displays of strength
quantity over quality approach - want lots of reproductive mates no matter the quality
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline the potential evolutionary purpose of attraction to 0.7 hip to waist ratio
birthing is performed easier with a significantly reduced chance of the mother dying during birth
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline studies into hip to waist ratio
Swami and Furnham:
ideal hip to waist ratio is roughly 0.7
majority of supermodels have this same ratio
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline the potential evolutionary purposes of age preference in a partner
Men prefer younger women as they have more eggs and a higher chance of a healthy birth
Women prefer older men as they have more resources to provide
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline studies into the impact of age preferences in a partner
Buss:
Found men preferred young, physically attractive females in 37 different cultures
Found women preferred ambitious, older with vast resources
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline the potential evolutionary purposes of symmetry preference in a partner
symmetry is a measure of attractiveness
being symmetrical better attracts partners - increased chance of reproduction
Women become more symmetric during ovulation in order to attract a mate whilst she is the most fertile
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
Outline studies into the purpose of symmetry in partner preference
Cartwright:
Found women with symmetrical breasts were more fertile than women with asymmetrical breasts - supports suggestion that symmetry means higher fertility
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences:
give evaluations for the role of evolution in partner preferences
- Research support - Buss, Cartwright, Swami and Farnham
- Social sensitivity - it is the woman that choses the man, men have no choice
- Conflict - reproductive traits do not necessarily help survival or vice versa
- does not explain gay, bi and asexual
- does not explain people who don’t want kids - 2.1 children per woman required for population maintenance, only 1.5 being born
Name the male strategies used in mating
- courtship rituals
- size
- sperm competition
- mate guarding
- sneak copulation
Outline courtship as a male mating strategy
showing off genetic potential for offspring to inherit and resources to provide for a family
Outline size as a male mating strategy
larger bodies show physical strength and an ability to protect partner and offspring
Outline sperm competition as a male mating strategy
evolved to have larger testicles and faster sperm to increased sperm count and chance of impregnation
Outline mate guarding as a male mating strategy
keeping a close eye on partners to prevent unfaithfulness
Outline sneak copulation as a male mating strategy
being unfaithful to maximise offspring/survival of species
Name the female strategies used in mating
- handicap hypothesis
- sexy sons hypothesis
- courtship
Outline the handicap hypothesis as a female mating strategy
some women pick handicapped people as it shows they can face hardship and survive - breeds fighters
potential for passing on ability to resist difficulty to offspring
Outline sexy sons hypothesis as a female mating strategy
some women pick physically attractive men in the hopes that the man will pass down his ‘attractiveness’ genes to their offspring to increase the likelihood of the offspring also having children
attempts to found a long lasting family line to preserve the species
Outline courtship as a female mating strategy
women date so they can assess the man’s worth and to determine if he is worthy of mating with for the purpose of offspring
the man’s worth is based on his financial earnings, the behaviour he shows and his personality - the woman hopes these traits passes down to their offspring
Factors affecting attraction:
Name the three factors into the development of attraction in romantic relationships
- self-disclose
- matching hypothesis/physical attractiveness
- filter theory
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline what is meant by self-disclosure
- disclosure of personal information
- partner gets the impression they are special
- partner discloses personal information due to feeling special
- repeat
Factors affecting attraction:
Name the theories surrounding self-disclosure
- social penetration theory
- breadth and depth of self-disclosure
- reciprocity of self-disclosure
Factors affecting attraction:
Name the factors affecting the effectiveness of self-disclosure
- appropriateness
- attributions
- gender differences
- content
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline appropriateness as a factor affecting the success of self-disclosure
Disclosing appropriate information at inappropriate times may damage the effectiveness of self-disclosure
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline attributions as a factor affecting the effectiveness of self-disclosure
If you feel the information they have disclosed to you, they have disclosed to everyone, you won’t feel special and therefore won’t self-disclose yourself
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline gender differences as a factor affecting the effectiveness of self-disclosure
women are regarded as more interested in self-disclosure to men. this means they experience a greater attraction boost when men participate in self-disclosure
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline content as a factor affecting the effectiveness of self-disclosure
If you share too high or too low information then the partner will likely feel uncomfortable, and therefore not self-disclose
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline studies into the effectiveness of self-disclosure
Kleinke:
found individuals who were perceived to be more selective with who they self-disclosed with were seen as more attractive
- suggests self-disclosure plays a key role in fostering attraction
Factors affecting attraction:
Outline studies into the importance of self-disclosure cross-culture
Kito:
looked at culture differences between Japanese and American students
found self-disclosure was higher in romantic relationships in both cultures compared to friendships (both same sex and cross-sex)
suggests self-disclosure is universal
Factors affecting attraction:
give evaluations for self-disclosure
- only partial explanation - ignores other factors i.e. personality, money etc.
- research support - Kleinke, Kito
- difficulty in scientifically researching - relationship attraction cannot be easily observed
Physical attractiveness:
Outline the halo effect
people who are deemed attractive benefit from favourable perceptions from society
society seems to think attractive means good - it doesn’t dumbasses
Physical attractiveness:
Outline studies into the halo effect
Gunnell and Ceci :
found less attractive people are 22% more likely to be convicted in court
less attractive people are also given, on average, a 22 month longer prison sentence than an attractive person
I suggest you never break the law Keiran
Physical attractiveness:
Outline the matching hypothesis
- people seek partners of similar physical attractiveness to themselves
- dating someone more attractive than you has an increased risk they will cheat on you - may make you feel insecure
- dating someone less attractive than you may make you feel you can do better - increased risk you will leave them - they may be jealous
Physical attractiveness:
give evaluations for the effects of physical attractiveness
- doesn’t explain arranged marriages - have similar success/fail rate as ‘normal’ marriages
- ignores other factors - wealth, intelligence, skills
- research support - Gunnel and Ceci
socially sensitive - if you’re ugly, you will date someone who is ugly. if you’re ugly, you’re going to prison
Filter theory:
Outline the filter theory
society filters down who you come across and therefore who you can date
Filter theory:
Name the three filters in the filter theory
Kerchkoff and Davies (1962):
- social demography
- similarity in attitudes
- complementarity
Filter theory:
Outline social demography as the first filter in the filter theory
age
education
location - work, live
groups you do and don’t belong to - religious cults
Filter theory:
Outline similarity in attitudes as the second filter in the filter theory
likely to meet people who share similar attitudes and beliefs
usually through participating in activities your attitudes align with i.e. protests, clubs etc
Filter theory:
Outline complementarity as the third filter in the filter theory
your strength complement your partners weaknesses and vice versa
i.e. if you’re good at cooking but bad at cleaning, your partner will be bad at cooking but good at cleaning
Filter theory:
Name studies into the filter theory
- Festinger
- Taylor et al
Filter theory:
Outline Festinger’s study into the filter theory
found people who lived nearer stairwells in apartment blocks knew the most people
familiarity is an important element of relationships
support social demography as a type of filter
Filter theory:
Outline Taylor et al’s study into the filter theory
found 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 did so with someone of the same ethnicity
supports social demography as a filter
Filter theory:
give evaluations for the filter theory
- destroyed by dating apps - suggests the filter theory is outdated and obsolete
- research support - Festinger, Tayler et al
- does not consider age
Theories of romantic relationships:
name the theories of romantic relationships
social exchange theory (SET)
equity theory
Rusbult’s investment model of commitment
Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown
each build on from the last
they dont contradict the previous theories
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the primary concepts of the social exchange theory (SET)
cost/benefit analysis
constantly changing perception on the costs of being in a relationship compared to what you get out of being in that particular relationship
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the minimax strategy in regards to the social exchange theory (SET)
attempting to minimise what you have to put into a relationship (costs) whilst also trying to maximise what you get out of the relationship (benefit)
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the term comparison level (CL) in regards to the social exchange theory (SET)
comparing current state of relationship to early forms of the same relationship to determine whether it has got better or worse
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the term comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) in regards to the social exchange theory (SET)
comparing current relationship to other potential relationships based on perception of what you think the potential other relationships might be like
this can be conscious or subconscious
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name the stages through relationship development according to the social exchange theory (SET)
sampling stage
bargaining stage
commitment stage
institutionalisation stage
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the sampling stage of relationship development according to the social exchange theory (SET)
weighing up the costs and benefits of a number of potential relationships whilst single
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the bargaining stage of relationship development according to the social exchange theory (SET)
a new relationship is ‘costed out’ and costs and benefits start to be identified during the early stages
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the commitment stage of relationship development according to the social exchange theory (SET)
the costs and benefits of the current relationship become predictable
this can lead to the relationship becoming more boring, however not always the case
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the institutionalisation stage of relationship development according to the social exchange theory (SET)
the relationship itself becomes predictable, resulting in the couple deciding to settle down
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name studies into the social exchange theory (SET)
Hatfield
Rusbalt and Martz
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline Hatfield’s study into the social exchange theory (SET)
Found partners who under benefitted in a relationship became angry and felt deprived
whereas partners who over benefitted felt guilty and uncomfortable
suggests equilibrium is important for a healthy relationship
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline Rusbalt and Martz’s study into the social exchange theory (SET)
applied the SET to women who were in abusive relationships. they found women tend to go back to abusive partners because there was no better alternative
they’d rather go back to being with an abusive partner than be single
the fuck does that say about society
Theories of romantic relationships:
give evaluations for the social exchange theory (SET)
- research support - Hatfield, Rusbalt and Martz
- socially sensitive - says all people are selfish and are just trying to maximise benefit of a relationship
- lack of explanatory power - doesn’t explain people who want to be single
- applicable - foundation for all other theories into romantic relationships
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the primary concepts of the equity theory
Walster refined SET with equity theory with the difference of focus from cost/benefit to fairness for each partner (equity rather than equality)
individuals become dissatisfied with the relationship if they feel they are suffering from inequity (unfairness)
this can lead to the end of the relationship unless both parties recognise disparity
this isn’t based on a comparison between what each party gets out of the relationship but a comparison between how much you put in to how much you get out
e.g. if you put lots of effort in and get lots out, then there is equity. if you put little in and get little out, there is equity. but if you put little in and get lots out or vice versa there is inequity
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name the factors associated with the equity theory
profit
distribution
dissatisfaction
realignment
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline profit as a factor associated with the equity theory
same as profit for social exchange theory (SET)
difference between the cost of the relationship and the benefit - how much do you gain
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline distribution as a factor associated with the equity theory
trade-ffs and compensations from both parties in order to achieve fairness/equity
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline dissatisfaction as a factor associated with the equity theory
the greater the degree of perceived unfairness/inequity, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
there can be two different interpretations on the fairness of the relationship as this is subjective
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline realignment as a factor associated with the equity theory
renegotiating the costs and benefits of the relationship in attempt to re-achieve equity
trying to save the relationship - not accounted for in the social exchange theory (SET)
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline research into cultural differences in regard to the equity theory
Moghaddam found US students prefer equity in relationships whereas European students prefer equality
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline research into sustaining equity in relationships in regards to the equity theory
Yum et al:
researched cultural differences across 6 different cultures
while there were little differences between cultures, Yum found that equitable couples performed the most maintenance strategies, suggesting it takes a lot of effort to sustain equitable relationships
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline research into perception of equity in relationships in regards to the equity theory
Dainton:
studied 219 individuals in romantic relationships and found people who had perceived inequity had low satisfaction in their relationship.
However, most individuals were motivated to return to an equitable state, suggesting that equity has a major influence over a romantic relationship
Theories of romantic relationships:
give evaluations for the equity theory
- research support - Dainton, Yum et al
- cultural differences - Moghaddam
- does not outline differences between the extent to which either of the two genders care to achieve equity
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline Rusbult’s investment model
satisfaction, quality of alternatives, investment size
–>
commitment level
–>
probability of persistence
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name the factors that commitment depends on in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Satisfaction
Comparison with alternatives
Investment size
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline satisfaction as a factor commitment depends on in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
the extent to which your partner meets your needs resulting in you becoming satisfied with your current relationship
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline comparison with alternatives as a factor commitment depends on in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Either consciously or subconsciously comparing your current relationship with potential others
Is your current relationship better than the other possible alternative relationships
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline investment size as a factor commitment depends on in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
How many resources the relationship has
The longer the relationship continues, the more you have both invested
The more you have both invested, the stronger the commitment
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the two types of investment in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Intrinsic - what we put into a relationship e.g. time, effort, money, emotional care
Extrinsic - what we get out as a result of the relationship e.g. children, shared memories, shared friendships
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name the methods in which commitment can express itself in everyday maintenance behaviour in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Accommodation
Willingness to sacrifice
Forgiveness
Positive illusions
Ridiculing alternatives
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline accommodation as a method of expressing commitment in everyday maintenance in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
you acknowledging and accepting your partners weaknesses and costs
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline willingness to sacrifice as a method of expressing commitment in everyday maintenance in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
making your partner priority over you
putting your partners needs and interests above your own
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline forgiveness as a method of expressing commitment in everyday maintenance in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
your willingness to forgive your partner’s mistakes
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline positive illusions as a method of expressing commitment in everyday maintenance in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
being unrealistically positive about your partner’s qualities
thinking the sun shines out of their ass
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline ridiculing alternative as a method of expressing commitment in everyday maintenance in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
minimising advantages of potential alternative relationships and viewing them in a negative light
e.g. assuming they have negative traits or overexaggerating the slightly bad traits they may have
this makes your current partner seem significantly more advantageous than they actually are
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline research into gender differences in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Lin and Rusbult:
found females generally reported higher satisfaction levels, poorer scores for alternative relationships, greater investment scores and stronger commitment overall in comparison to men
(think investigator bias - Rusbult supported Rusbult)
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline research into cultural differences in regards to Rusbult’s investment model
Van Lange et al:
found support for all aspects of the model in Taiwanese students while Lin and Rusbult found similar findings in Dutch students, suggesting cross-cultural consensus
Theories of romantic relationships:
give evaluations of Rusbult’s investment model
- research support - Van Lange et al
- researcher bias - Lin and Rusbult
- poor explanatory power - people married for decades still get divorces even though they have large commitment
- face validity
- explains abusive relationships
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the major types of relationship breakdown in regards to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
Pre-existing doom - the relationship was doomed from the start. usually the result of being incompatible
Mechanical failure - you were compatible but started to grow apart. usually due to individual natural growth
Sudden death - a large catastrophic event that causes the immediate end of the relationship
Theories of romantic relationships:
Name the phases of relationship dissolution according to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
Intrapsychic
Dyadic
Social
Grave Dressing
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the intrapsychic phase of relationship dissolution according to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
- one person begins to feel dissatisfaction in the relationship
- considers costs of withdrawing from the relationship
- private dilemma of whether to raise the issue with their partner or not
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the dyadic phase of relationship dissolution according to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
- the dissatisfaction is discussed with the partner in an attempt to resolve the issue
- negotiate future behaviour
- possible attempt to repair relationship
- both parties consider costs of withdrawing from relationship
(break up occurs between dyadic and social phases)
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the social phase of relationship dissolution according to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
- the breakdown is made public to family and friends
- negotiations occur with ex e.g. children, finances
- deal with gossip from family and friends
- create and spread face-saving stories that blame your ex
Theories of romantic relationships:
Outline the grave dressing phase of relationship dissolution according to Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
- perform ‘getting over it’ activities
- publicly dispute own version of breakup
- retrospective, reformative post-mortem attributions
Theories of romantic relationships:
give evaluations of Duck’s model of relationship breakdown
- practical applications - relationship therapy
- face validity - the different phases make sense
- lack of explanatory power - doesn’t explain gender differences - beta bias - Kassia found men blame a lack of sex whilst women blame stress, unhappiness and incompatibility
Virtual relationships:
Name the theories into virtual relationships
Self disclosure
Absence of gating
Virtual relationships:
Name the theories into self disclosure
Reduced cues theory
Hyperpersonal model
Virtual relationships:
Outline the reduced cues theory in regards to self disclosure
Sproull and Kiesler (1986) suggested we have reduced cues in online dating. as a result, reduced self disclosure and reduced emotional closeness
obsolete with face time - lack temporal validity
Virtual relationships:
Outline the hyperpersonal model in regards to self disclosure
Walther (1996) suggested that online relationships quickly become intense and feel more intimate and meaningful. this can result in them dying faster
Rubin (1975) suggested we are more likely to self disclose with a stranger because you are unlikely to meet them in person - ‘stranger on a train’ phenomenon
Virtual relationships:
Outline research into cultural differences in self disclosure
Yim and Hara found cultural differences between American, Korean and Japanese in changes to trust in disclosure - the further east you go, the less likely they are to self disclose
Virtual relationships:
Outline research into reduced cues theory in regards to self disclosure
Schouten et al found people high in social anxiety experienced greater disclosure due to the absence of non-verbal cues that they typically struggled with
suggests the subtle cues in verbal talk are missing and benefit some people
Virtual relationships:
give evaluations for self disclosure
- research support - Schouten et al, Yim and Hara
- practical applications - those with social anxiety can now find partners
Virtual relationships:
Outline what is meant by absence of gating in virtual relationships
- gating refers to unattractive traits that stop the progression onto a second date
- gating is significantly reduced (if not entirely eliminated) by virtual dating
- behaviours that would have caused the end of a date normally won’t necessarily have the same effect after virtual dating due to already developing a bond/connection prior to discovering these behaviours
Virtual relationships:
Outline research into intimacy of virtual relationships in regards to an absence of gating
Bargh et al found that intimacy developed faster in virtual relationships due to the lack of gating features
supports idea that the reason intimacy develops quicker in VR is because there are less barriers putting people off
Virtual relationships:
Outline research into the benefits of virtual relationships in regards to the absence of gating
McKenna found that the removal of gating features in VR allowed disadvantaged people (such as the uglies) to enter relationships
Virtual relationships:
give evaluations for the absence of gating in virtual relationships
- research support - Bargh et al, McKenna
- lack of explanatory power - doesn’t evaluate differences between the two genders
Parasocial relationships:
Outline parasocial relationships
- when individuals believe they are in a relationship with someone of a higher status
- e.g. celebrities (hero worship)
- through watching media personalities, they begin to think they are having actual physical experiences with them
- tend to start of as friendships, but develop into physical attraction and sexual desire
Parasocial relationships:
Outline vulnerability to parasocial relationships
11-17 year old typically
Negative correlation between level of education - lower the education, the greater the intensity of the parasocial relationship
Men tend to prefer sports stats, women prefer entertainment personalities
